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MRS. O H. BURBRIDGE 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY 
CULTURE 



MRS. O. H. BURBRIDGE 

Editor PACIFIC FANCIER 
Los Angeles, Calilornia 



Copyright 1 906 

By MRS. O. H. BURBRIDGE 



LIBRAfly of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

FEB 14 1907 
(\ Cowrrtaht Entry 

/IA8S A, XXc.No. 



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CONTENTS. 



California as a Poultry Raising State 5-7 

Suitable Poultry Houses and Fixtures 8-21 

Care of the Breeding Stock 22-25 

Incubation in California 26-29 

Care of the Chicks 30-33 

Care of Birds during the Moult 34-36 

Profitable Bgg Ranching'. 37-41 

Poultry Plant for Breeding Stock and Eggs for Hatching 42-51 

Crate Fattening of Chickens 52-56 

Caponizing 57-6i 

Lice and Mites 62-65 

Diseases and Cures 66-86 

Starting a Poultry Ranch on small Capital 87-89 

A Beginners Experience 90-92 

Questions and Answers 93-97 

The Egg. 98-101 

Management during Sunumer Months 102-105 

Breeds Best Adapted for California 106-151 

Turkeys in California 152-156 

Ducks in California 157-161 

The Goose in California 162-165 

Pigeons for Profit 166-177 



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The Editor of this little book has for a long time realized 
that a volume oit California Poultry Culture was necessary 
to show our Eastern and Northern friends what could be 
done in the line of poultry breeding in this state. She has 
been for some years writing articles for poultry magazines, 
and for nearly two years past has been editor and manager 
of the largest poultry magazine west of Chicago, so has been 
able by the volume of correspondence from all points in the 
United States, England, Scotland, Australia and Hawaii to 
know what the people most desire to ascertain in regard to 
this subject. Mrs. Burbridge writes from the practical stand- 
point also, being owner and manager of one of the largest 
breeding-stock ranches in the West, namely Orpington 
Ranch, which is well known throughout the States. She has, 
while the ranch was growing, done every portion of the work, 
thus being able to speak from the practical working stand- 
point and not solely theoretically as so many of the authors 
of poultry books do. She has compiled this little volume 
from her own experience and from the best authorities in 
the West on the various subjects she has considered of most 
vital necessity to the new breeder. 



California As a Poultry Raising State. 

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 

California is the poultryman's Paradise. For three 
hundred and sixty days out of the three hundred and sixty- 
five in our winterless year the birds can be out of doors 
scratching and singing instead of moping in cold, comfortless 
quarters as in the East and North. Here there is no neces- 
sity of expensive buildings to keep out the cold, no big coal 
and wood bills for artificial heat, never a frosted comb, and 
quantities of eggs in the winter. There is always plenty of 
sunshine, and everyone knows what a germicide the sun is. 
Many California poultry ranches have their houses so built 
that they can be opened to the rays of the sun every day and 
rarely are troubled with vermin of any sort. In the Coast 
towns there is always a cool breeze and in any part of Cali- 
fornia one can be comfortable out of the sun's direct rays, 
so if one lacks fruit or shade trees iri the chicken yards a 
cheap shade structure can be built and the birds made per- 
fectly comfortable during the hot months. 

There is no month in the year when a green crop cannot 
be raised ; consequentlv the health of the bird is much better 
when kept on short green rations during the Eastern winter 
months. Many of the most successful ranches run poultry 
in conjunction with fruit growing, the birds assisting in 
keeping down the insects and enriching the soil, thus help- 
ing the orchard, and the trees making the very necessary 
shade and giving an occasional feed of cooling fresh fruit to 

the poultrv. 

In this land of sunshine Mother Nature dowers the 
children of man with that best of heritage, good health. It 
is not an exaggeration to say that the man or woman who 
is so fortunate as to live in California and who works or 
plays out of doors is practically immune from all the illness 
that flesh is heir to. and, with this greatest of all blessings 
added to the best climate on earth, a country full of ardent 
fanciers, one of the best egg and poultry markets m the 
States, a man or woman is a mighty poor manager who can- 
not make more than a good living out of poultry. 

California sends over five million dollars yearly to the 
Middle West and Eastern States for market poultry, to say 
nothing of what is sent to the owners of fine breeding plants 



6 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

in the East and Europe. With the rapid growth of the cities 
this demand is becoming greater all the time and it is high 
time for the California rancher to grow more poultry. The 
ranches devoted to market poultry and eggs obtain a better 
average price in California than ony other State in the Union. 

Of course I speak of the up-to-date ranchers who make 
their goods attractive, which is so easily and cheaply done, 
and often spells the word "success" instead of "failure." 

California is the ideal State for poultry raising, yet it 
cannot supply half the demand of its own people, let alone 
the rapidly growing demands from the Pacific islands and 
the Orient. 

Poultry raising especially appeals to the average Easterner 
who comes to California, for it gives him the means of 
making both ends meet for the first few years after he starts 
in the new life. Many of those who come to this State from 
the East do so because of bad health or because they have 
worn themselves down with arduous work. These men and 
women are desirous of entering some occupation which will 
give them plenty of outdoor exercise, without being too 
strenuous. Poultry raising does not demand a large amount 
of capital to start with, and there is no occupation that one 
can engage in that is more healthful. If a man or woman is 
strong enough for outdoor employment, caring for a hand- 
some fiock of fowls is a most pleasurable business as well as 
a most profitable one. 

There prevails a widespread opinion in many parts of 
the East that poultry in California is subject to strange dis- 
eases, to attacks of vermin and to many other evils. This 
fallacy is one that has been exploded so often that it seems 
out of place again to contradict it. If there is a place on 
the face of the earth where poultry thrives better than in Cali- 
fornia that place is yet to be discovered. 

So far as the commercial end of poultry raising in Cali- 
fornia is concerned, an ample income for an average family 
can be realized from five acres or less within twelve months 
from the start. The failures in the poultry business in Cali- 
fornia are due either to ignorance or shiftlessness. 

There are three things which are absolutely necessary 
to success in the poultry business anywhere, and they are as 
necessary in California as anywhere else. These are indus- 
try, perseverance and cleanliness. They are prime essentials, 
and without them it is unwise to go into the business of 
raising chickens. To the man or woman with small capital 
the same difficulties present themselves as in other lines of 
business, making it necessary for one to begin modestly or 
carry a mortgage for a time, but there is no other business 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 7 

in which a man or woman can get as good returns for his 
monev as in the poultry business. 

If properly managed a farm of five acres and 1500 hens will 
keep the average family, a horse and a cow. Figuring from the 
market standpoint the ranch should clear $3000 a year. It is 
estimated that the lowest net profit of the eggs will be $2.00 a 
year for each hen, it will cost an average of $1.00 per year to feed 
each of the flock. This calculation does not take into account 
the young stock for it is estimated that the sale of the young 
cockerels provide for the pullets which go to increase the flock, 
while the sale of the old hens after the third year will increase 
the profit of the place. 

There are numerous instances in California where for- 
tunes have been made from a start of a few dollars. But to 
the ordinary man or woman who would like to go into 
the business the results obtained by people of small means 
are of more interest. x\ll over the State may be found 
people who are making good livings out of their flocks of 
fowls. The}' have started in a small way and increased their 
flocks gradually until now they have enough to bring them 
an income sufiicient to provide them with all the comforts 
of life and many of the luxuries as well. In California are 
to be found many women who own small poultry farms, and 
who are leading independent lives, filled with health and 
happiness. These women came to the country broken in 
health and poor in purse, but they have recovered their health 
and are now enjoying the fruits of their labor. 



Suitable Poultry Houses and Fixtures. 

IMPORTANCE OF PROPER HOUSING. 

That the housing is very important, all must admit, for 
upon this depends a great deal of the success or failure of the 
venture. Nothing is so detrimental to the development of chick- 
ens as close and crowded houses, and only those who have 
opened a crowded and badly-ventilated house a few hours after 
the birds have gone to roost can fully realize how unwholesome 
foul air is, and yet it must be borne in mind that colds, roup, 
bronchitis and many other ailments are often caused by cracks 
and holes in the roosting quarters. 

Good poultry houses may be summed up in two classes, 
one being the tight house with perfect ventilation at the bottom, 
and the other being the "free air" open or semi-open fronted 
house. Either of these is good if the principle is carried out 
correctly. Perhaps it may be necessary to explain what is meant 
by the open-fronted house, and we think a plan will be more 
easily understood than any other explanation. 

THE OPEN-FRONT HOUSE. 

Commence at the floor, which should be of well-tamped 
earth so that a sprinkling of sand or other dry matter can be 
spread over the surface and swept out when necessary. This is 
much better than digging up the inside of the house, for when 
it has been dug two or three times the whole mass becomes 
contaminated, whereas a few inches of scratching material can 
be removed very easily when foul. 

The back (i) and (2) and ends (i), (3) and (2), (4) 
are closed. The front, which should face south, is closed only 
from (4)-(6), (3)-(7) is wired in, (7), (6) is the door, the 
perches are (5), (8). 

It will be seen that any wind can only reach the birds from 
point (3) and only then when they are roosting at point (5). 
Close observation has proved to us that on windy or cold nights 
they will retreat to point (3) and on sultry nights spread them- 
selves to point (5). Here we have pure air and no draughts, 
provided the house has been built of such material as will make 
the sides, back and roof good and tight. Re-sawed redwood 
or even shakes, covered with any of the various building papers 
or clean felting that are on the market. Still more shelter can 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 9 

be had by using a canvas or burlap screen when necessary from 
(3) to (6). In such a house as above described it will be seen 
that the chickens can, at the will of the poultry keeper, be kept 
in at any time that it may be found necessary, and if during the 
wet days a few bushels of rough scratching litter be thrown on 
the floor in which they can be fed, the birds will not suffer. 



i 






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8 







Ground Plan Open-front House. 

If one does not care for the open-fronted method of hous- 
ing, front space from (3) to (7) may be boarded, also the door 
(7) to (6), two good ventilators placed one at each end of the 
house at the lowest point will give good ventilation and will 
make a capital house. We favor the open fronts ourselves, 
however. 

THE SCRATCHING SHED HOUSE. 

A fowl, like a man, must be occupied in order to be happy 
and useful. An over-fat drone female is both a poor egg pro- 
ducer and an easy prey to poultry diseases. Even if they do 
produce a few eggs in a season, thejchicks hatched from them 
seldom amount to much, either as to vitality or productiveness. 

With these facts before us, naturally the question was how 
best to keep our fowls busy and in proper shape to produce 
eggs that would hatch strong chicks. After many experiments 
we decided that birds kept under the yarding system, which 
we believe is the only way to get the best results from breeding- 
birds, must be provided with scratching material in which they 
are required to work for all of their grain food. In order to 
save both yard and house room, we used a combined scratching 
and roosting house (a drawing of which is given herewith), 
which has proven very satisfactory in our yards and will suit 
the conditions of other California poultry raisers. 

This house is 6 feet high in front, 4 feet in rear, floor space 
8x8 feet, with door in end 2 feet wide ; no dropping board is 
used but a 1x12 board is placed on end, eighteen inches from 
rear of wall. (This to keep the scratching material away from 
the dropping floor.) A perch is placed about the center of the 
dropping floor space about twenty-four inches from the ground. 



10 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



The two ends and rear of house are covered with either sawed 
shakes or some other hght lumber, all cracks being well bat- 
tened. Roof is covered with sawed shakes laid shingle fashion. 
The front of the coop is covered with two-inch mesh wire net- 
ting, with IXI2 boards along the bottom to keep in the scratching 
material. The space between the boards dividing the dropping 
space and the front of the house makes an ample scratching pen 
which is filled with short shavings for scratching material, in 
which is scattered once dail}^ a feed of wheat, cracked corn or 




The Scratching Shed and Roosting House. 

Other small grain. We have found that the odor and dust from 
the shavings help in keeping down the lice, and for that reason 
prefer them to straw. The fowls naturally scratch the litter to 
the back of the pen, and enough falls over the edge of the divid- 
ing board to cover the droppings. We clean out the droppings 
once a week. The division board should not be nailed to the 
house, but so arranged that it can be removed for cleaning pur- 
poses. A burlap curtain is provided so that it can be let down 
at the front of the house during the winter rains ; at other times 
the front is left open. When first using this house we were 
breeding Partridge Cochins, a variety that is not noted for egg- 
producing qualities, but we found that we got more eggs from 
our Cochins by using the scratching method than some of our 
neighbors with Leghorns kept in bare 3^ards. 



FENCES AND RUNS. 

While the matter of proper housing is a very important 
matter to consider in establishing a poultry plant, the matter of 
proper yarding is of equal importance. 

One cardinal fault with beginners is that when starting 
with chickens they do not think and work out their plans, so that 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



11 



the number of houses and runs may be increased without tearing 
down a whole lot of their early labors. It is much easier to 
commence right, and even if you do not enlarge your plant as 
time goes on, nothing is lost ; but should you require to do so, 
if you start right, much is gained. When buying or renting a 
yard or ranch first get your measurements, decide how much 
}Ou are going to let the chickens have and how much the gar- 
den, orchard or any other domestic matter is to occupy. When 
}'ou have the measurements of the chicken portion, if it be 
a small lot, get the square measurements of it, divide by fifteen 
and that roughly will tell you how many birds your ground will 
carry ; or, in other words, each bird requires fifteen square feet. 
By this it will be seen that on a lot of lOO by 25 about 120 
chickens can be kept if perfect cleanliness be carried out. We 



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Diagram Complete Poultry Plant. 

do not say that this is the maximum amount that may be kept, 
but do not recommend more. If it is possible for them to get 
away to a grass run occasionally, many more may be kept. 

After having decided the type, size and other things in con- 
nection with the house and yards, the next thing to be considered 
is the fencing. As to what is best and cheapest, depends upon 
tircumstances. Lathing placed diagonally is a pretty and cheap 
fence, but not very durable. The usual fencing is the ordinary 
chicken wire which is fairly cheap and the most practical. 
When fencing the yards it is most important that the bottom 
should have board or other material so that the birds cannot 
see each other. It prevents the cocks from fighting and the 
youngsters from fretting. About five feet is the usual height 
for the fencing; three feet will suffice for Cochins and Dorkings, 
tibout five feet for Orpingtons and Rocks, but it may be neces- 
sarv to have six feet for Games, Leghorns and other breeds. 



12 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



The following diagram is a suggestion for a very complete plant, 
and though it will cost a little more than one usually cares to 
go into at the commencement, it is not in the least extravagant, 
for the amount of time saved by having such compact yards will 
soon pay the poultry keeper back. Taking the numbers con- 
secutively, the explanation is as follows : Number i the runs, 




Trough for Mash or Dry Feeding. 

2 the houses, 3 the doors, 4 the nest boxes, 5 the perches. It 
will be seen that there is a six-foot passage in which to do the 
necessary work, such as cleaning out, watering, disinfecting, etc. 
It will also be seen that we have given two yards to each house. 
This is a point that we would insist upon above everything else. 
The birds can be kept in excellent health in this manner. From 
recent experiments that we have made we find that a crop of 
wheat or barley can be produced in four weeks sufficient to 
cleanse the ground and give the birds a nice green patch which 
will last quite a little while. The soft grain is also an induce- 
ment for them to scratch which gives them good exercise. In 
the meantime the spare yard is again set to barley or wheat ready 
for the next move. The perches can be made to swing upon 
hinges, so that the interior of the house is c|uite clear, and on 
wet and cold days, if some good, rough litter be placed inside, can 




A Cheap Colony House. 

be used as a scratching shed. The same type of house may be 
used as already described in this chapter, or the tight houses 
with bottom ventilation. There will, of course, after this set 
of houses has been built, be some land left. A part of this must 
be set aside for the raising of young stock, and it is better that 
the old breediuQ- stock does not s:o near, this land. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



13 



THE COLONY PLAN. 

There is nothing hke free range to make the growing 
youngsters develop into strong, well-marked adults. One may 
with care confine the old stock in very limited quarters the year 
round, and in cases where a very few birds are raised in a season 
the young birds may be raised in good shape in small yards, 
but, as a general proposition, if one is raising any considerable 
number of chicks they should arrange to give them as large a 




The Rhodes Movable Colony House. 

range as their space will permit. In order to do this at the least 
cost and have the birds in as small flocks as possible at roosting 
time the best plan is to divide the flock off into, say, lots of 25 to 
50 each, selecting those of about the same age and size, and either 
place these in small colony houses enclosed in large runs that 
have been planted to some grain crop or scatter them over a 
general range. Both of these methods have been used by suc- 
cessful breeders. Some breeders use colony houses with each 
colony fenced off in half-acre lots. Others who are using colony 



14 



CALIfORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



houses very successfully allow the birds to range at will over 
a given range during the day, but require them to roost in small 
flocks at night. It is sometimes necessary to place a temporary 
fence around the colony house for a few days after removing the 
birds to the new quarters, so that they can become accustomed 
to roosting in the colony houses; after that they will return to 
their proper houses, no matter how far away they may range 
during the day. In feeding colony birds it is best to scatter 
their grain feed over the range as much as possible, and make 
them hunt for it. The dry feeding method which is described 
in another chapter is a very easy method of feeding birds on 
a range. 




Biddie's Bedroom, Richland Egg Ranch Colony House. 

We give herewith cuts of several good colony houses. The 
mushroom house can be built any size desired, but a house 3 
feet wide and 6 feet long is considered the best. They set upon 
legs 16 to 18 inches off the ground; there is no floor in these 
houses, and the air can circulate freely beneath them; the sides 
are 36 inches high, covered in tight with a good roofing paper. 
The roof is made separate from the house proper, and can be 
removed each day to* allow the sun to shine in on the roosts, and 
allow the attendant to spray the inside walls ; this is also covered 
with roofing paper. The whole house is made of light lumber, 
and can be easily moved from place to place. The illustration 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



15 



of " Biddie's Bedroom," as it is called by one of our foremost Cal- 
ifornia colony house adherents, is described by him as follows: 

"To start with, I will say that I have used this style of 
Toosting house for over ten years, and I am as well pleased with 
them now as ever, and the only change that I have made that 
does not show in the cut is to saw out the two feet of 2x3 be- 
tween the two center roosts so that a person can walk into the 
house and avoid stepping over the roost support. I run braces 
from the front lower corner so that they come directly under the 
center roosts, and this gives the roost support all the strength 
that is needed. 

"The house is 8x10 feet, and two feet to the eaves, all the 
framework, including the runners, is 2x3, and the walls and ends 
are 1x12, shiplapped so as to avoid using battens. 




The Mushroom House. 



"The rafters are 5 feet 4 inches long, and three pairs are 
used; 1x6 is run all around the outside of the roof to form the 
eaves and also to make it tight; eight pieces of 1x4 are used for 
sheathing, and the sawed shakes are laid close so that there is 
no drauglit from that source ; the only opening is the front, which 
is open at all times. The opening is faced to the east, as here 
there is no wind or rain from that direction. The houses do 
not require cleaning, for they are on runners, and are slid along 
about fifteen feet each time, so that they are on fresh ground 
and much cleaner than one could do it in any other manner. 

"I have never found a louse in the houses in all the years 
thai thev have been in use, and I have never used anv form of 



16 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



lice killer in them other than whitewash, for appearance only. 
As to the cost, will say that $6.50 will cover it, and seventy-five 
birds will find all necessary room for sleeping without kicking 
the covers off or falling out of bed." 



HOUSING THE YOUNGSTERS. 

One of the first stumbling blocks encountered by the new 
breeder is the overcrowding mistake. A poultry raiser will 
hatch a large number of fine, strong chicks and carry them along 
to the weaning period in fine shape, when all at once they will 
notice that the chicks that were doing finely, growing like weeds 
and feathering in fine style, commence to droop and lose their 
vitality. This can almost always be traced to one of two causes, 
overcrowding or lice, and frequently both. Those who use 
brooders generally have their youngsters at weaning time in 
flocks of from 100 to 200 chicks, and instead of separating them 
into small flocks, frequently make the mistake of placing the 
whole lot in one roosting house. It is not so necessary that the 




Weaning Coop. 

young birds should have different runs, but it is absolutely neces- 
sary to have them roost in small flocks. We have found that 
25 do better than 50, and we believe it pays, and pays well, to 
keep the roosting flocks down to not more than 25 birds in each 
house. Aluch of the trouble from colds is caused from chicks 
overcrowding. In a large flock a chick is one minute too cold, 
and when he crowds his way into the flock becomes too hot, 
and the bird he crowds out becomes cold, and consequently con- 
tracts a cold, and later roup. Then many of the weaker chicks 
in a flock are actually crushed and injured inwardly. Much for- 
eign color is also brought about by crowding, and it has been 
the means of spoiling many an otherwise choice show specimen. 
When the new adult feathers are in what is known as the bloom, 
the overheating and cooling of a bird and the injuring of the 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



17 



new feather frequently makes it come in with foreign pigment 
showing, when had the bird been housed properly the feather 
would have come in with the right coloring. In view of these 
facts it will be seen that crowding should be prevented if one 
wants to raise a flock of strong, well-marked birds. The best 
method to keep youngsters from huddling in one corner of their 
house is to get them on the roost as soon as their size and feather- 
ing will permit. A few crooked breast bones will result from 
teaching the chicks to roost early, but the health and vitality of 
the general flock will more than make up for. the few that ma)- 
contract this very common defect. The cut of the cold brooder 
shown on this page has proven very satisfactory with us as a 
means of getting the weaned chicks to roost early. 

This little house is 3x6 feet, 3 feet high in front, 2 feet in 
rear, and can be built of any cheap lumber, such as old drygoods 
boxes, shakes, etc. The house should have a good, tight floor, 
on which could be laid a framework covering the entire inside 



The First Roost. 

floor space, made by laying three 1x3 pieces on edge, and cover- 
ing with common laths, 2 inches apart. These answer as roosts, 
and at the same time allow the birds to get quite close together, 
while the spaces between the laths prevent them from crowding 
or huddling in the corner. In front of this shed coop a burlap 
curtain should be hung, and after the chicks are all in at night 
this should be let down in front of the coop. If possible, it is 
better to place these cold brooders in a protected place, such as a 
shed house enclosed on three sides, but where this is impossible 
they can be placed about the yard as any other poultry house. 
In a coop the size of the one described above, fiifty youngsters 
can be housed until they reach the fryer size, or until they are, 
say, three months old. We know of no better method of teach- 
ing the birds to roost, and at the same time keeping them from 
crowding, than by the use of this little coop. Of course these 
houses should be kept well cleaned, and the roosting frames made 
in such a manner that they can be easily removed from the coop, 
allowing the attendant to thoroughly clean the coop, and at the 
same time sun the roost and treat them for lice and mites. 



18 



CALIPORKIA POULTRY CULTURE. 
THE TRAP NEST. 



By the use of a trap nest we soon learn the good and bad 
quahties of our hens and their general condition. We also learn 
that the careful use of a practically constructed trap nest should 
be the means of building up a profitable laying strain. The 
trap nest illustrated on this page has been used successfully by 
many California breeders. It is described as follows: 




Trap Nest — Figure 1. 



Figure i is the box or nest without the top. The top is 
made of boards large enough to make a good snug cover. The 
size of the whole box is 14x14, 28 inches long. For the door I 
make a frame and cover it with wire; I used straight wire, but 




Trap Nest — Figure 2. 

■one can use wire netting if they choose. For the hinge I use a 
piece of heavy wire which I nail firml}- to the door and let it 
rest in small staples at the end of the box. Note figure i. The 
trigger is made by having a wire to run in front of the hole in the 
partition, so that when the hen goes from the front to the nest 
she pushes it aside, which lets the door fall. Note figure 3. 
Figure 2 shows the hen going into the nest. You note that a nail 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



1^ 



has been driven in the door. This nail rests on the wire that 
comes in front of the partition. This wire is bent over a ix4-in. 
board that goes alongside of the partition, sec figure 3. Figure 
4 shows the nest as one looks from the top, showing the gate 



raised and trigger set. 




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Trap Nest — Figure 3. 



When the hen goes into the nest, the door drops behind her 
and she has to stay in the nest until you release her. You release 
the hen by lifting up the cover of the box ; if your hens are 
banded }Ou can have a record book and keep track of each hen 




Trap Nest — Figure 4. 

by marking the number of the leg band on the egg, and by put- 
ting the band number in a book you can credit the hen with 
each ^^% as she lays it. 

MARKING THE CHICKS. 

Those who have been rearing high-class fowls any great 
length of time have already learned how to mark their chicks so 
as to distinguish them when matured, but among our readers there 



2« CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

are undoubtedly a number who will be glad to be instructed in 
this matter. Marking the chicks has a number of advantages. 
If we are going to breed intelligently it is absolutely necessary 
that the chicks be marked, the progeny of each mating receiving 




Punch for marking Chicks. 

a distinctive marking. In mating up the pens another season 
this will be a safeguard against in-breeding, as it is possible by 
this method to know just what relation (if any) the fowls bear 
to one another. Again, by marking the chicks from the differ- 
ent matings we can know which mating produced the best chicks 
and can remate the same birds. In buying eggs from another 
breeder, it is always desirable to know what kind of mature fowls 
the eggs produced, and it is impossible to know this unless the 
chicks are marked so that they can be distinguished from other 
fowls on the place. Besides, w^e can always tell the age of our 
chicks if they are marked and a record is kept of the hatches. 

LEFT rOOT 

Diagram Showing Some of the "Web Punch" IVIarks. 

The diagram herewith shows how the chicks can be marked 
in fifteen different ways. The two rows of figures represent the 
right and left feet of as many chicks. The holes are punched in 
the web of the feet by a punch made especially for this purpose. 
It is a practically painless operation and the chicks do not mind it 
much. Be careful not to get the outer edge of the web or it will 
tear out. As each brood is hatched carefully mark each chick, 
using a different arrangement for each lot of chicks — that is, 
marking all chicks from one pen one way, and from another pen 
another way, changing the arrangement in a manner similar to 
that indicated by the dots in the diagram just as they appear in 
the web of the chicks' feet. Opposite this diagram record the 
pen or breeder from which or whom the eggs were secured, the 
date of the hatch and any other information that will be of use 
to you in the future. The above diagram shows only a few of 
the many ways a chick may be marked in the webs of the feet. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



21 



A SAFE BROOD COOP. 

Herewith is presented an illustration of a chicken coop 
which we have taken much comfort in during two seasons. 
We used boxes i8xi8 inches by 3 feet, building the runs of such 
scraps as are to be found around a place and that can be manipu- 
lated by a woman with a saw and hatchet. The front of the box 
is boarded up about two-thirds of the way across, the other third 
being left open for the hen and her chicks to pass in and out. 
The closed end of the box furnishes a snug, warm corner during 
the night and bad weather. Over the yard is tacked, first, wire 




Brood Coop for Hen and Chicks. 

netting", i-inch mesh, so that rats, cats and other prowlers cannot 
get in. A strip of common table oilcloth is nailed over the top 
of the box and hangs down behind the box far enough to pre- 
ent the rain from leaking in. The oilcloth is held in place by 
laths being nailed along the edges. Another strip of oilcloth, 
large enough to cover the yard, is rolled upon a stick, one end 
of it being fastened to the top of the coop on the front end of the 
box. During stormy weather this can be unrolled downward so 
that the oilcloth covers the wire netting and thus keeps the ground 
in the yards dry. x\fter the storm is over this oilcloth is rolled 
up, as rolling it up prevents it from sticking or cracking or being 
otherwise ruined as when left lying around loose. In the end 
of the box a slide door is placed. 




Care of the Breeding Stock. 



Every poultryman must be a student, especially in the way 
of feeding ; no set rules hold good. Fowls at difterent times 
need different amounts of food, while the various breeds also 
differ as to the amount of food they consume. A hen when in 
good laying condition, needs more feed than when poorly laying, 
or not laying at all. 

The ration given in the chapter on "Care of Birds during 
Moult" is a fine one for laying hens. 

Fowls that are crowded do not respond with a profit. It 
may pay to have a small flock, and yet the addition of a few more 
birds may change the profit to loss. Sometimes more fowls can 
be kept together in the poultry house in the winter season than in 
the summer, and, in fact, on cold nights it may be an advantage 




Feed Hopper. 



to have enough of them together so that the animal heat of- 
their bodies may raise the temperature of the house ; yet they 
should not be crowded or they will not thrive. During the warm 
season each hen should have at least ten square feet of room, but 
in winter five square feet may be sufficient — that is, a house 
lOxio feet should accommodate ten fowls in the summer, but in 
the winter season such a house can be used to keep twenty hens 
with less inconvenience than to put ten of them together in sum- 
mer. Many of the breeding birds when fed the concentrated 
rations necessary for large egg production grow fat, and a fat hen 
will rarely lay a strongly fertile egg. All hard grains should be 
fed in deep litter, and it is far better to give the birds all the 
possible range. I see many birds kept in small runs with a big 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



23 



lot next to them fairly calling to the birds to come and enjoy its 
sweet young growth. Let one pen out for a few hours at a time 
if they cannot all have free range, and see the difference in the 
hatching of the chicks. The breeding birds must be given all 
the ingredients for a perfect egg. How can one expect a lively 
chick from a badly nourished hen? Firstly and lastly, give the 
birds all the cool, clean water they can drink. Think how much 
■of the egg is composed of water, and furnish all the biddies want. 
In wet countries north and east the birds can scratch bugs and 
worms enough out of the ground to furnish all they need 
of animal matter, but in our southern land we must supply them 
at all times with some artificial animal food. Many use a beef 
broth as the basis of the morning mash ; others feed dry beef scrap 
in hoppers ; others furnish the necessary amount in green bone ; 




Movable Nest Box. 

but, whatever your system is, see to it that they get it in some 
form, and do not grumble when the egg basket is light and lay it 
to the breed, if you neglect feeding the proper amount of animal 
food. I have found that with all the green food they can eat, 
the grain bills reduce fully one-half. In the winter season 1 
feed the young wild clover, the baby barley, wheat, etc., and in 
the summer time I feed soaked alfalfa clippings. Green food 
is one-half the ration of a healthy laying female. No liver 
trouble, digestive disorders or colds will come if the blood is 
kept in condition by plenty of green food. / Please do not forget 
the grit and shell. I would rather order the tailor to make a' 
frock without thread than ask a hen to make eggs without shell, 
and digest her food without grit. Be sure that it is fairly large 
and sharp. And first, last and all the time, keep up the crusade 
against lice. Spray the houses every month in winter and every 
week in summer with distillate and carbolic. Paint the roost with 



24 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



one of the good lice-killers just before roosting time, and then if 
you have a suspicion, after furnishing the proper dusting places, 
that your birds are not perfectly comfortable, take them one by 
one and powder them well, or put them in a tight box painted 
with lice-killer, with only room for the head to come out. Many 
people do not realize that the males need a tremendous amount 
of attention for this pest. If they have any lice they will trans- 
mit them to the females, and the male is less able to rid himself 
than the female. They seldom dust, and should be powdered well 
all during the breeding season ; or, better still, placed in the "lice 
box," which should be a part of every properly appointed breed- 
ing pen. The nest boxes should be cleaned often, and either 




Interior View of Connected Poultry House System Showing Alley and Method 

of Cleaning. 

powder or sulphur and lime sifted in the straw. The nest boxes 
should not be painted with strong disinfectants ; that would be 
dangerous to the delicate germ in the egg, and plenty of clean 
straw and an occasional whitewashing will keep it free from lice 
or mites. If a breeder would only spend more time watching 
the birds each day he could tell easily how to care for them. 
Theory will never take the place of practical experience, and the 
successful man or woman in any branch of work is the one who 
is not afraid of work. 

Some of my correspondents seem to feel that powdering each 
fowl is a great deal of trouble. The liquid lice paints for the 
under side of the roosts just before bed time will often solve this 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



25 



problem, or one can purchase a lice powdering machine for a few 
dollars that certainly setters the powder through the feathers 
at a great rate. I can powder a dozen big chickens this way, 
but they get a deal of the powder in their poor eyes. The birds 
should always be powdered in a barrel or over a paper, and the 
powder can be used time and again. I find a good home-made 
powder is one part air-slacked lime, one flowers of sulphur and 
one dry road dust. This makes a most excellent and cheap 
powder. I do not recommend dipping fowls. There is too much 
danger of injuring\the egg organs by over handling, and then, 
too, the birds are liable to colds. I have never had any trouble 
keeping down this pest by keeping a good deep dusting place, 
spraying the houses with a mixture of two gallons of distillate 
and one teacup of crude carbolic, and keeping the nest boxes clean. 




Incubation In California. 



THE ARTIFICIAL METHOD. 

It takes a lot of big wor.'j and long phrases to write up an 
up-to-date article on incubators, but somehow or other we have 
been reasonably successful with just common United States 
language when it comes to the hatching question. 

Let us be plain and call things by their right names. A 
fertile egg is a seed, it must have the necessary warmth to sprout 
and grow, a temperature of 103 ; it also must be cultivated, the 
eggs must be turned, aired and manipulated after nature's ways. 

A temperature of 103 seems to be standard, although very- 
few recognize that placing the thermometer differently would 
necessarily mean that it should read differently, but such is the 
case. With the thermometer between the eggs showing 103, 
the same thermometer lying on the eggs would show 104, or if 
suspended above the eggs near the tank, it would show still more. 
We prefer placing the thermometer on the eggs, thus showing 
the combined heat of the eggs and the heat applied to them, 
still more I prefer a variation of temperature as the hatch 
progresses, for instance, 102 and 103 first week, and 103 second 
week, and 104 third week ; this variation being due to the in- 
creased animal heat in the eggs as they develop. This tem- 
perature will bring good results. 

There are bushels of iron-clad rules about turning the eggs 
just so, but my advice is to turn them as often as you have time 
and air them as often as you have time. I don't mean that it 
would be necessary to put in your whole time or even a tenth- 
of it turning and airing the eggs, but I do mean that they should 
be turned at least once every day, and twice every other day, 
and that when looking at the thermometer the tray should be 
pulled out and let the eggs get a whiff of pure air. Why? you 
would ask. I will tell you. Turning the egg ripens it clear 
around, the germ comes to the top ; every movement of the egg 
makes a corresponding movement of the embryo chick : besides 
ripening the shell clear around, these movements wake the chick 
up, it is exercise for it, it expands, moves, and develops its own 
strength ; this principle applies to all life, whether stock or eggs ; 
for instance a stock breeder would not put up a dam in close 
quarters to bring a strong young. There is simply nothing 
mysterious or unaccountable in hatching eggs, a little reasoning 
in advance of the real thing explains most everything about it.. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 27 

Now about moisture ! An tgg must get rid of a lot of 
moisture before it can hatch. Eggs during incubation get 
smaller and lighter; this being the case, applied moisture could 
not enter the egg. The moisture question and ventilation ques- 
tion are so entwined with each other that the effects of one are 
often taken for the effects of the other. Personally we do not 
believe in dosing out the aid in prescribed quantities — there is 
lots said about governing the size of the air cell by opening and 
closing the dampers, but we prefer a correct and continuous 
ventilation. If it is correctly fitted, there need be no dosing it 
out in a mystical way with dampers. We prefer a constant 
mild circulation of air and to depend on airing the eggs in open 
air to conform to nature's ways. 

What's the good of airing the eggs? might be asked. In 
answer will say, that the t.gg shells, like other things, expand 
in heat or contract in cold. This expansion and contraction, the 
result of airing the eggs, breaks down the tough fibers of the 
shell, and when the chick is due to hatch it can hatch. It also 
applies to moisture on the same principle that a glass of cold 
water will sweat in a warm room when the atmosphere is just 
right. We are sure this moisture, however light, is good for 
the shells, good for the reason that it is light and afifects the 
shells only. 

Good hatches are made with and without moisture, opinions 
are about equally divided. We are satisfied, in fact, we know 
it does no harm to apply a little moisture direct to the shells if 
the ventilation is sufficient. Have tried all the moisture plans 
and plans without moisture and have, at this time, more faith 
in the old-fashioned way of sprinkling the eggs occasionally than 
any new wa}'. 

The old-fashioned sprinkling is applied direct to the shells 
and does not make a continuous mucky air in the egg chamber. 
It does not matter about exact dates in sprinkling, exact dates 
would be nonsense, but I can guarantee that you will do the 
eggs no harm if you sprinkle them with tepid water on the 12th, 
15th and 1 8th day. 

Do not disturb the trays from this time until the hatch is 
complete. When all the chicks appear to be pretty well dried, 
open the machine, remove the trays, and closing the door, except 
a minute crack for better ventilation, leave the little fellows 
in the egg chamber for twenty- four to forty-eight hours, grad- 
ually decreasing the temperature until the thermometer registers 
95 at the end of twenty-four hours. As the thermometer hangs 
above the chicks, it is probably a degree less at the chicks' 
heads. \\'e have found this plan to work very satisfactorily. 
The chicks go into the brooder accustomed to a lower tempera- 
ture and ready to eat anything that they can find. We believe 



28 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



that most machines do not furnish enough fresh air for the chicks 
after they are well dried ofif, so open the door just a little that 
they may be supplied. 

Many of the new models of incubators have a drawer into 
which the chick falls and can thus be better tapered off from the 
104 of the incubator to the brooder heat. 

The temperature of the brooder should be fixed at 90 before 
the chicks are put in, as its complement of chicks adds two to- 
five degrees when they are under the hover. 

NATURAL INCUBATION.— MANAGING SETTING HENS. 

In preparing to make the spring hatch, we usually take one 
room of our poultry house, one that has a dirt floor, and take 
everything out of it. The interior receives a good whitewash 
with the spray pump, and lice killer is used until we feel sure 
the room is free from lice and mites. We take cracker boxes 
for the nest boxes, and after spraying them in the inside we 
put in about four inches of fresh dirt; in this we make a nice 
nest, filling all the corners of the box and seeing that the bottom 




Chickens and Mothers on Alfalfa Range. 

is rather flat. Next we take common ha}', that is not too coarse, 
and line the nest, care being taken not to use too much hay, 
and that the nest is good and roomy. We place these around 
the wall of the room and have a tow sack ready for each nest. 
After dark we take the broody hen off of her nest, no matter 
where she may be (many times we purchase them), and take 
her to the sitting room. We give her one or two eggs, put her 
on the nest and pull the sack clown so she can't get out. Late 
in the afternoon or just before sundown we go out and quietly 
draw the sack off. Corn and wheat are set before her, with 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 2» 

plenty of water and grit, and a place to take a dust bath. If 
she goes back on the nest we know she is ready for business, 
and that night we give her the eggs. If she does not go back 
on the nest, we put her back and try her again, and if she won't 
work, we take her back where she came from. We usually 
have from six to ten in one room, and with proper care and 
attention have very little trouble with them. We dust them 
about three times with insect powder, taking care not to dust 
a hen just before she hatches. When setting a hen we give the 
number of the pen from which the eggs are taken, stating the 
breed, giving aate for hatching, putting this on a card and plac- 
ing it in the box where it can be seen. Then we can tell just 
when to be ready and to look for the young peepers. Regularity 
in attending will aid wonderfully. With feed and water go in 
the morning and see that their wants are supplied. Always 
notice to see that no broken eggs are in the nest, as this may 
cause some trouble. Just about dark take a stroll through the 
poultry house and see that all the hens are on their nests. We 
usually do the dusting after night, as less confusion will follow 
and they will bear handling much better. Set your hens in pairs 
%T several at a time, and when they come off it's best to have 
all in the room hatch at the same time for several reasons. The 
first is nothing so interests a hen as to hear a peeping chicken, 
and if she hears the noise in her nest she stays with it the more 
closely, but if it's in the next nest she may jump off to investi- 
gate. Give them careful attention when hatching. The ne^t 
advantage in having several come off at one time is th'at you 
can give the chickens to part of the hens, and reset the others. 
With a good brood coop a medium-sized hen — and they are the 
best — will take care of i8 to 20 chicks in fine shape, so that you 
may be able to reset at least one-half of them. Care should be 
taken that you do not make a hen set more than two terms. 
Watch out for mites, when the hens want to leave the nest and 
will jump off quite often, look for mites again. They are the 
setting hen's very worst enemy. 



Care of Chicks. 



FEEDING THE IvlTTLE CHICKS. 

So many different methods of feeding brooder chicks are 
advised by people whose experience and success entitle them to 
consideration, that what one man or woman says should be taken 
merely as an opinion until one tries it and finds it satisfactory 
for his own use. The prepared chick feeds now on the market 
offer a well-balanced ration of dry grains with the proper allow- 
ance of beef scrap, grit, charcoal, etc., in a convenient form and 
at a reasonable price. 

We believe that chicks often get too much food when they 
are first placed in the brooder, and that heavy losses frequently 
occur from that cause alone. The best results have been ob- 
tained when the chicks were left in the incubator for a day and 
a half without food after the hatch has been completed, and 
when placed in the brooder fed one light feed the first day, two 




Pen of Young California Pekin Ducks. 

the second and three the third. Beginning on the fourth day, 
five feeds may be fed daily, but they should be very light and 
never more than enough to satisfy the chicks for the time. A 
little lettuce or finely-chopped clover, grass, or alfalfa can be 
fed daily after the first week, and occasionally a change to 
chopped onion will be relished and prove of medicinal value. 
For chicks not intended to be kept for breeding a little raw beef 
is good, but it forces the bird too rapidly to be good for breeding 
stock. 

EXERCISE NECESSARY EGR HEALTH. 

Every inducement should be offered the youngsters to 
scratch and dig, and the exercising apartment in the brooder 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



31 



and the adjacent pen in the house should be thickly carpeted 
with some good scratching material to that end. Hay chaff is 
one of the best things for this purpose and can be easily obtained. 
Anyone who stores or feeds hay has more or less of it and is 
usually glad to get rid of it. It contains many small seeds and 
bits of clover, which the little fellows make good use of and 
for which they will search diligently if healthy and not too well 
supplied by the attendant. The temperature of the brooder 
house should not be too high. Some will deny that it is well 
to heat the house at all, and many, either from preference or 
lack of equipment, supply no heat to the house except that which 
escapes from the brooders. When the chicks are small, how- 
ever, I believe that a moderate degree of heat, about 6o degrees, 
is desirable in cold weather in that it enables the chicks to spend 
more time on the floor of the pen getting up their muscle. It 
should be remembered that 60 degrees recorded when the 



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California Productions. 

thermometer is three feet above the floor is not 60 degrees down 
where the chicks are. Place the thermometer within a few 
inchs of the floor. 

The best manner of feeding is the one that will best promote 
exercise. If dry food in the form of grain is given it is best, 
especially in cold weather, when the little birds cannot get out- 
doors to exercise, to mix this in the litter and compel them to 
scratch it out. 

PURE AIR OF FIRST IMPORTANCE. 

In rearing chicks pure air is a very important factor that 
seldom gets due recognition. Cheap as it is, and necessary for 
the vital processes concerned in maintaining and developing all 
forms of energy, it is not unusual to find brooder houses with 
no provision for anywhere near an adequate supply. Brooder 
stoves and heaters are burning out what little oxygen there is, 
and owners and managers wildly endeavoring to figure out some 
intricately balanced ration to reduce the frightful mortality. 
Provide plenty of good air under the hovers and wherever else 



32 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

there is a chick, and the science of feeding will be wonderfully 
simplified. 

Pure, fresh water should be always accessible if a dry grain 
ration is fed. Opinions differ as to the advisability of supplying 
water when feeding a mash ration, and some poultry men seem 
to have greater success when giving water and others when 
withholding it. 

The degree of heat will have been gradually reduced to 80 
at the end of four weeks, and may be further reduced to 70 at the 
end of six weeks, where it may remain so long as the chicks 
need a hover. No more heat is needed in the house than is neces- 
sary to remove the chill in the air in cold weather. 

A gradual change from the baby food of the first four 
weeks to the more substantial diet of mash, cracked corn and 
wheat should be accomplished in ten days or two weeks. This 
is a period of growth, and the chicks should have all the food 
they can make use of. More fresh air, exercise, and as much 
outside run as possible are potent factors in their development. 
Green food must be furnished daily if the birds cannot have 
green range. 

The growth of chicks is almost unbelievable when fed a 
simple mash of two-thirds wheat bran, one-third corn meal, with 
ten per cent, of beef scrap added, three times a day — morning, 
noon and night — with an allowance of wheat at mid.-forenoon 
and of cracked corn at mid-afternoon. Grit and charcoal should 
be kept in the pen, preferably in a hopper where it will be clean. 

No more food should be given at any time than will be 
consumed at once, and if any mash is left, it should be taken up 
when the attendant takes up and cleans the troughs or boards, as 
he ought to do after each meal. 

It is understood, of course, that the grain is fed in litter on 
the floor of the pen, and of sufiicient quantity to induce vigorous 
scratching, but no more. 

AFTER THE EIGHTH WEEK. 

From the eighth week forward different treatment must 
be accorded those intended for stock purposes or large roasters 
and those intended for broilers, only the broilers-to-be should 
remain longer in the brooder house. The others should be placed 
out in the field in roosting coops if the weather is warm or housed 
in warm quarters. Occasionally broiler chicks may advan- 
tageously be placed outside, especially if errors or carelessness in 
feeding have noticeably reduced their vitality, or if it is impos- 
sible to maintain a temperate heat in the brooder house. Usually 
it is best to keep them in the house where they will take but a 
moderate exercise, and will lay on flesh and fat without the 
toughening of the muscles which takes place when they have 
free range in the fields. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 33 

From the eighth week to kilHng time plenty of green food 
should be supplied every morning; the grain should be fed as 
before and the mash materially strengthened. Three parts corn 
meal, one part wheat bran and one part first-quality beef scraps 
makes a simple and effective fattening food, which, if fed to 
chicks in good health, supplemented by green stuff, fresh water, 
grit and charcoal, as directed, will make a full-fleshed, fat broiler 
of unbeaten quality. One of the most important points to re- 
member is that no mash nor troughs must be allowed in the pens 
except during the few minutes when the chicks are eating. No 
other than freshly mixed mash should be fed, and any that re- 
mains when the troughs are removed should be taken away and 
may be fed to old birds. 

A potent cause of trouble is overheating in the hovers. 
When the older chicks, from eight weeks forward, are allowed 
hovers they will frequently crowd into them at evening, cause a 
high temperature and lose in the night all the flesh they have 
gained in the daytime. If they have access to hovers sufficient 
ventilation must be provided to keep down the heat. Always 
look through the brooders before retiring and arrange for the 
comfort of the occupants during the night. Much can be done 
to that end after the chicks have settled down. 

For the chicks intended for roasters no change in composi- 
tion of the ration need be made except that a larger proportion 
of hard grain and less of mash should be fed, and the number 
of meals reduced to three per day. Mash may be fed at morn- 
ing and noon, or only in the morning, as best suits the judgment 
and convenience of the feeder, the remaining feeds being of 
grain, principally corn, wheat and oats. 

When it becomes necessary to fatten roasting chickens, they 
may be confined in yards of moderate area and fed the same as 
advised for fattening broilers. Occasionally it may be advisable 
to place some of the quarrelsome males in a room which may be 
darkened except when they are eating. 

The hatching and raising of chickens, while requiring con- 
stant and painstaking attention, is by no means a difficult prop- 
osition or one beyond the ability of the man or woman of average 
intelligence, and the application of common sense will produce 
satisfactory and profitable results. 



Care of Birds During the Moult. 

■ During the moulting season (from July ist to November 
1st) the poultry breeder should give his fowls special atten- 
tion ; in many cases, after heavy laying has stopped, the birds 
are more or less neglected. The mash at this season should 
be discontinued, as the animal food contained in most of 
them keeps up the egg production, and it is necessary that 
the egg production be stopped, if possible. The older hens of 
good type, and that are to be kept for breeders, should be 
allowed to set if they become broody in July or August, as 
the process of incubation is the very best means of carrying 
out a successful moult with them. All birds should be care- 
fully dusted and the houses be made lice and mite proof, for 
the little pests have spoiled many a show bird by ruining the 
new feather. The Van Dresser method has been tried, and 
many people speak well of it, but personally we think it 
takes too much of the vitality of the bird that is to be 
used as a breeder, and many a fine male has been rendered 
utterly useless for another year by being forced too quickly 
to moult. A bird must be reduced in flesh, there is no ques- 
tion about that, but it should not be starved down too sud- 
denly. Another error that is frequently made, all birds are 
treated alike, whether fat, medium or thin, all are starved 
for three weeks until the fat hens are in proper condition 
for bringing out the new feather, and the thin ones are droop- 
ing and weak, if not practically ruined. So divide your birds 
before you start the moult, put each male in as large a single 
pen as you can spare, put the fat hens in a good, large yard 
and feed as much green food and as little wheat as you 
feel will keep up their strength, but reduce flesh, put the hens 
that are in good condition in another yard, and feed a bit 
more so they will all start moulting evenly; then when you 
start feeding your moulting foods the work is only half as 
hard as if the pens had to be fed separately for condition. 

Ratioiis for Moulting Hens. — The food requirements of 
the moulting hen do not differ materially from those of the 
laying hen. Some authorities prescribe rations rich in pro- 
tein and low in fats, as containing in better proportion the 
elements required for feather production. 

We began by using such rations, but soon discovered that 
our hens moulted better, growing a much better and glossier 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 35 

coat of feathers, if fed a ration rich in fats. Experience in 
this respect has been the same with hens moulting in mid- 
summer, and those moulting in late fall, except that the hens 
moulting in summer moulted much more quickly and often 
laid continuously right through the moult. For many years 
our method of feeding moulting hens has been : 

Morning: Mash made of lOO lbs. bran, 50 lbs. shorts, 
50 lbs. corn meal, 10 lbs. beef scraps. 

Noon or all-day feed : Wheat, sunflower seed or barley, 
broadcasted in; scratching pens littered with clean straw. 

Evening : Cracked corn scattered in the yards, but all 
should be worked for so the fat does not accumulate and hurt 
the bird for laying. 

Alfalfa or cabbage before the fowls all the time. 

The mash should have a portion of linseed meal a few 
times a week. 

Many of the mills are making a good moulting food, and 
it can be frequently purchased far cheaper than: the small 
breeder can buy the separate ingredients and mix them. This 
ration will make a beautiful, glossy feather, and get the bird 
in good condition in a short time. 

The males should receive every attention, and not be 
mated to the females again until their new feathers are nearly 
perfect. The breeder of exhibition stock should keep the show 
birds in shady pens, and it is much better for them not to 
be mated until the show season is over. To the new breeder 
this is genrally too much of a deprivation, but the old breeder 
generally picks out his stock at the beginning of the moult, 
and it stays on deep straw, in well-shaded pens, and has no 
broken feathers, nothing, in fact, to count against it in con- 
dition. A great many breeders give a tonic of iron during 
the moult, and it is a most excellent thing for black or bufif 
birds, but is apt to bring too much creaminess out in the 
-white birds. It is a bad idea also to give white birds much 
yellow meal or yellow whole corn, for the same reason, but 
in this country we feed so little corn that it is hardly worth 
making any change in the color of it. While the birds are 
being fed for feather is a good time to get thoroughly ac- 
quainted with them, for a bird made gentle by petting and at- 
tention generally scores a few points higher when the judge 
gets hold of it. We have seen a really magnificent specimen 
crouch down in the coop and flutter around so wildly that no 
idea of his carriage and shape could be obtained. Do not 
forget that the birds are in a more delicate state of health 
during this time, and house them in draught-proof houses. So 
many people have no idea of treating a bird humanely, yet are 
mortally offended if told so. They let the poor things roost 



36 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



in the trees or houses so filthy or draughty that a cold is al- 
ways threatened, and then when a stranger wants to know 
about the poultry industry they are informed that there is no 
money in it in California. Give plenty of cool, fresh water, 
have charcoal,, grit and shell before them all the time, and 
furnish an abundance of green food. 

Just remember how good the green salads, fresh fruits 
and cool drinks taste this season of the year, and do not for- 
get the chick-a-biddies. If you give your birds this attention 
and care during the heated season you will have early eggs, 
chicks before your neighbors, who are too negligent to work 
for the greatest good to their birds, get your cull cockerels 
sold at top prices, and have a fine lot of early layers. 




Profitable Egg Ranching. 



A few years ago in California the big egg ranches ran 
almost entirely to the Leghorns, but with the introduction 
of some of the newer breeds and some strains of the older 
ones especially bred to heavy egg production as well as size 
of bird, there is a change and one frequently sees a flock of a 
couple of thousand of one of the American or English breeds 
on an egg ranch. We believe, however, this is the exception 
and most of the market eggs in California are from Leghorn 
stock. 

Two plans of egg ranching are followed ; the extensive, 
or colony, and intensive, or yarded, flocks. The extensive 
and irbtensive plans both have their advantages. The colony 
idea is one which demands less care, and those who follow 
it say they have as good results as the man who has small 
yards and pens for his .flocks. This controversy proves but 
one thing conclusively, and that is that either plan will be suc- 
cessful if followed with persistence. The colony plan de- 
mands larger farms and gives the poultry farmer less insight 
into the workings of the individuals of his flocks. The atten- 
tion is less than that demanded by the small pen plan, and 
the food supply is smaller. To offset these advantages the 
advocate of the intensive plan says he gets better results, 
knows what each hen is doing and can liius cull out the poor 
layers, and gets more eggs at the time of the year when eggs 
are highest in price. 

Under the colony plan the poultry is housed in small 
movable buildings, which are scattered over a large field. 
The estimate is that there should be two hundred hens to the 
acre. If a man desires to raise two thousand hens he must 
have at least ten acres for them in addition to the necessary 
ground for his own house, barns and outbuildings. This 
ten acres, however, can be planted to orchard, and both hens 
and orchard are the better for it. This plan gives the chickens 
plenty of exercise, as they will roam over the entire ten acres, 
each colony returning to its own house at night. The feeding 
of these colonies is simplified by having hoppers which are 
self-feeding, thus obviating the necessity of attention except 
at stated periods when the hoppers are to be filled. Water 
is supplied from continuous founts on the same plan. In ad- 
dition' to this, a feed of mash is usuallv hauled around to the 



38 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 




CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 39 

different houses once every three days. This sort of poultry 
raising minimizes the work, making" the egg" gathering the 
most arduous of it all. 

We have in our chapter on Poultry Houses some very 
good colony houses and if the pullet is started laying in one 
special house the chances are that she will always go home 
to lay and roost in the same house no matter how close the 
others are. To our mind the strongest argument against the 
colony plan is that too much of the birds' physical energv is 
wasted in ranging, energy which if properly conserved will 
turn to egg production, but one of the advantages is that the 
birds need less care. 

On the intensive plan two thousand birds can be cared 
for on five acres of ground, and" they will be constantly under 
the eye of the owner. The grain should be fed in deep 
scratching material for the reason that with the small yards 
exercise must be induced to keep the birds from growing 
overfat. A plant of this style can be laid out very cheaply ; 
any of the houses in' ''Poultry Houses" chapter can be used and 
built in a continuous line. One of the best-paying poultry 
plants that we know of has the yards of two rows of houses 
running" to a single alley thus making the work of feeding, 
gathering eggs, watering and cleaning much easier. The 
tgg production is better in the intensive plan as the "drones" 
can be more easily culled out and the food goes more to egg 
production. This plan is also better when it comes to the 
care of chicks raised in brooders. 

The one object of all poultry keeping is profit, and as 
in practical egg farming it is the fall and winter eggs that 
pay the best profit, it is necessary that we study the conditions 
favorable to getting eggs in fall and winter if we would have 
the best profit. It is very generally conceded by observing 
poultrymen that the pullets are the early winter layers, hence 
it is obvious that we must look to the pullets for the eggs 
that pay that best profit. It is equally well understood, by 
experienced egg farmers, that to be good fall and winter 
layers, these pullets must have been early hatched, and have 
been kept growing so that they come to full size and laying 
maturity before winter overtakes them ; indeed, the writer 
has frequently expressed the opinion that the key note to the 
best profit from poultry can be laid down' in these three 
short rules : 

First : Hatch the chicks early. 

Second : Keep them growing so that the pullets shall 
come to laying maturity before rainy weather. 

Third : Keep them laying by good care and good food. 



40 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

The full story of profitable egg farming is condensed 
into those three short rules. 

It is equally well understood that the chicks hatched 
from the eggs of pullets are generally slightly smaller, and 
are likely to be less hardy and vigorous than the chicks from 
the eggs of year-old hens, and the wisest poultryman hatches 
the chicks which are to^ be the future laying-breeding stock 
from the eggs of year-old hens. This principle of pullets 
for layers and year-old hens for breeders makes it easy to 
plan our method of procedure. To get the best all-round 
results, three-fourths of our stock should be early hatched 
and well matured pullets, we will get the bulk of the early 
fall and winter eggs from them — the eggs which pay the 
creamy profit; and by selecting for the future breeders the 
best layers among those pullets and breeding from them 
when: they are year-old hens, we will strengthen the laying 
habit and thus increase and develop it. It is well known 
that not every pullet hatched from eggs produced by a great 
layer will be a great layer, just as it is known that not every 
colt from record trotting ancestry will prove a great trotter ; 
still we will get the best results if we breed from stock of 
known great-laying ancestry, because by breeding from that 
stock we will strengthen and develop the egg-producing 
quality. 

A point frequently overlooked in connection with pullets 
for layers is, that if the hens are all kept over a second, third 
and fourth year they, occupy the house room and are eating 
food of pullets which would pay double the profit. We do 
not claim that a pullet would lay twice as many eggs as a 
hen, the point we want to bring out is, that a greater propor- 
tion of the pullets' eggs are produced at the time when prices 
are highest and pay the best profit. Eggs are high in price 
at that time because the hens have not recovered from the 
moult and are taking a rest, and also because many of the pul- 
lets are late hatched and have not begun to lay. If we are 
so fortunate as to have early hatched and well matured pul- 
lets laying at that time we are getting the "cream" of the 
profit from egg production. 

Another point which we need to keep in mind is, that if 
the hens are kept over we lose the amount which they would 
sell for, and if we have good stock the amount the hens sell for 
materially increases the profit account. 

Some writers claim that the cost of raising pullets to 
take the place of the year-old or two-year-old hens must be 
considerable, but we have proved, year after year, that 
cockerels hatched with the pullets can be sold at from four 
to five months old for enough to pay for all the food eaten 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 41 

by both themselves and the pullets, hence, considering the 
cockerels as simply a by-product, the pullets cost nothing for 
the food they have eaten up to laying maturity. Some will 
be inclined to doubt this statement, but, as we stated before, 
we demonstrated it again and again, and can prove that the 
pullets at laying maturity cost absolutely nothing but the 
labor of caring for them; obviously then, all of the money 
received for the sale of the year or two-year-old hens is clear 
gain. 

It is the old familiar story of the slow shilling and the 
nimble sixpence; the latter pays its owner many times more 
interest than the slow shilling. The pullets not only pay us 
the better profit in the increased number of eggs produced, 
but the failure to sell the old hens entails the expense of house 
room and food which could have been used by more profitable 
pullets, which would be so much better layers; and it also 
cuts us ofif from the income of the sale of the hens themselves. 

With these several points of advantage clearly in mind 
we think our readers will understand the importance of the 
motto — "Pullets for layers, and year-old hens for breeders." 



Poultry Plant for Breeding Stock and 
Eggs for Hatching. 



In making a start in the thoroughbred pouhry business a 
most essential thing is that we start with good stock by get- 
ting the very best that one's money can buy. A beginner 
who purchases a trio of extra choice birds or a setting of 
eggs from a high-class breeding pen is getting much more 
value for his money than: one who buys a large flock of 
cheap birds or several hundred inferior eggs. Most beginners 
have little idea how much time is saved, and time is money, 
by buying good stock. Another point, don't breed too many 
varieties. The whole of a life time is not too long to get 
the best out of one variety, and the man: who devotes himself 
to one or two varieties gets the best there is out of them and 
will achieve the greatest success. The greatest successes 
among poultry men today, as a rule, are those who have 
made their reputation with one variety ; the men who get 
the largest prices, who do the largest and best business, are 
those who are devoting themselves to the breeding of onie 
variety and making that a specialty ; who are putting into the 
development of their chosen variety all the energy and ability 
with which they are endowed. 

In California the poultry plant for fine breeding stock 
is a big paying proposition, the people of this state and 
what we consider tributary to it, Arizona, Washington, Ore- 
gon, Nevada and Montana in the States, and Australia and 
Hawaii, being fanciers of the best type. By this I mean the 
fancier who is always looking to improve his flock and is 
willing to pay a good price for eggs and birds necessary to 
accomplish his purpose. We have always received good 
prices for our own stock on our ranch, eggs ranging from two 
and a half dollars per setting to twenty dollars, and hens and 
pullets from five to twenty-five, cocks and cockerels from ten 
to one hundred and twenty-five. These are not exceptional 
prices, but prices maintained throughout four years of steady 
demand. We know of many ranches who book all of their 
eggs at above prices for the season by the first of December. 
The rancher who starts out to maintain a flock for the sale 
of fine eggs and exceptionally fine stock should never for any 
reason allow a cull to 2frow to maturity. The birds should 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



43 



all be of standard quality and well mated to bring forth off- 
spring as good or better than the parent stock. The breeder 
should exhibit his stock in the poultry shows of his natural 
buying territory and by having the right kind of stock can 
rapidly become known as a fancier from whom to obtain good 
stock, and by maintaining the highest ciuality will be able to 
have a good income with less work than the commercial Qgg 
rancher. 

HOW AND WHEN TO ADVERTISE. 

Having made a start with good, thoroughbred stock, the next 
thing is to let the public know it and solicit orders by advertising: 











■ 'Ha^Cv -T^MB—Mf- *" '^'^: T^HSPt ' II 





View of Successful California Poultry Plant. 

The merchant or storekeeper tells the public who he is and what 
he offers for sale by signs over his door and on his windows, and 
by displaying samples of his wares in his windows or beside his 
door; that is one way of advertising, and such advertisements are 
likely to be seen by those passing the store. Another method of 
telling people who one is and what one has for sale is bv publish- 
ing an announcement in the advertising columns of the local pa- 
per; the card in the local paper is another form of the " sign " or 
the " window display." For the poultryman who has breeding- 
stock or eggs for hatching for sale the poultry and farm papers 
are " local." Through them he will reach the public that is in- 



44 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 




'' .:^*r»^. 



NOMENCLATURE DIAGRAM OF STANDARD FOWL. 



7 Back. 

8 Saddle. 

9 Saddle feathers. 

10 Sickles. 

11 Lesser Sickles. 

12 Tail-coverts. 

13 Main tail feathers. 

14 Wing-bow. 

15 Wing-ooverts forming wing bar. 
16 Secondaries, wing-bay. 



Beak. 

1 Comb. 

2 Face. 

3 Wattles. 

4 Ear-lobe. 

5 Hackle. 

6 Breast. 



17 Primaries, or flight feathers. 

18 Flight coverts. 

19 Point of breast bone. 

19, 20, 20 Body and fluff. 

20, 20 Fluff. 
21 Thigh. 

22, 22 Knee joints. 

23, 23 Shanks. 
24 Spur. 

25. 2.5 Toes or claws. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 45 

terested in the goods he offers for sale, and it is in them he will 
make his announcements. 

PREPARING FOR SHOW-ROOM. 

The one feature most required for the proper presentation of 
the stock in the exhibition hall is to have them hatched from good, 
healthy stock and properly grown to a complete maturity. No 
specimen will make an extraordinarily good exhibition fowl that 
has not been well grown into a strong, vigorous specimen, having 
fine constitution. This is necessary from the fact that confinement 
in the show-pen in the exhibition hall is very enervating to all 
specimens cooped therein. 

Presuming that each specimen under consideration has been 
carefully grown and selected for the purpose, we will attempt to 
advise our readers of the possibilities of preparing them for the 
show-room. Always remember, however, that the rules of 
associations make faking a disqualifiction, and the new rule 
in the Standard recommends that every specimen shown b)^ 
the individual exhibiting a fake specimen be discarded from 
the show-room. 

This brings up for consideration the question as to what is 
" faking." In the language of the new Standard, just issued, 
faking is described as : Removing or attempting to remove, for- 
eign color in face or ear-lobes when it is a disqualification ; re- 
moving one or more side sprigs, or trimming a comb in any man- 
ner, except the dubbing of Games; artificial coloring of any 
feather; splicing feathers; injury to plumage of any fowl en- 
tered by another exhibitor; plugging up holes on legs of 
smooth-legged varieties where feathers or stubs disqualify; 
staining of legs ; in fact, any self-evident attempt on the part 
of an exhibitor to deceive the judge and thus obtain an unfair 
advantage in competition. 

We would refer our readers to page 28, in the new Standard, 
as to general disqualifications. This page should be carefully 
studied by each and every exhibitor. 

Every specimen that is sent to the exhibition hall, no matter 
what color the plumage may be, should be thoroughly tub-washed 
to gain the best prize. This has been so frequently described that 
it is scarcely necessary to refer to it again. However, in the 
washing of fowls, in the preparation for the exhibition hall, there 
is one feature that demands more than passing attention, and that 
is the placing in presentable condition the shanks of the smooth- 
legged fowls. The Standard says: "If the judge thinks that 
some of the holes or rough places in the shanks are caused by 
the removal of feathers from the same, the specimen may be dis- 
qualified. Often there is a clash between the exhibitor and the 
judge, the former claiming that rough holes were not caused 



46 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

through the removing of stubs or feathers; the judge, thinking 
otherwise, disquaHfies a specimen. 

PREPARING THE SHANKS. 

To have a perfectly smooth shank that might otherwise be 
rough or vmattractive, soak the shanks twice a day for several 
days with kerosene oil. After this has been done, suspend the 
specimen in a hammock, permitting the shanks to hang down 
through the holes in the swing. Set this upon a chair or stool ; 
with a bucket of warm water, a woolen rag and a cake of sapolio, 
polish or wash or rub down to a smooth surface the entire shanks 
and feet of the specimen with a woolen rag dipped in water and 
thoroughly covered with sapolio. We have known a patient ex- 
hibitor to work five or six hours in this way with a pair of rough 
shanks until they were as smooth as glass, and as rich in color as 
it is possible for a shank to be. After these shanks have been 
thoroughly polished, and placed in the finest condition in this way, 
wash them absolutely clean with warm water, and anoint them 
with a mixture of one-half alcohol and one-half sweet oil. Place 
the specimen in a coop with a perfectly clean floor that may be 
covered with chafif or cut straw. The following day anoint the 
shanks again with the mixture of alcohol and sweet oil. Before 
sending to the show thoroughly tub-wash the specimen, shanks 
and all, and afterward dry nicely. Never use anything upon the 
shanks, the face, comb or wattles but pure, cool water. Specimens 
treated in this way often make a grand appearance in the show- 
room that might otherwise have been disqualified in bad condition. 

The preparation of the specimen for the show summed up in 
one paragraph is as follows : Perfect health, perfect condition, 
absolutely free from all possibilities of disqualification of proper 
weight, shape, formation and color of plumage. If all of these 
requirements are met to the strongest extent, the specimen is eli- 
gible to win. What to feed and how to feed is a question often- 
times propounded. Feed them just as you would to have them in 
the very best of condition for any other purpose. Never force 
them into unnatural weight by overfeeding, for an unnaturally 
fed specimen will lose as much on the cut for condition as he is 
likely to gain in the weight clause. Try to grow your specimens 
for exhibition into proper size to meet the requirements of the 
Standard and make it unnecessary to overfeed them to keep them 
or have them in proper standard weight. 

The time to begin to prepare for the exhibition hall is as 
soon as the young chicks commence to run about. Carefully 
look them over and examine them so as to become familiar with 
their contour and make-up. As the feathers begin to grow, the 
color and markings will quickly tell those of experience what the 
prospective quality of those young chicks are, and by giving spe- 
cial care and attention to the best of them you will grow to ma- 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 47 

turity a lot of young fowls that will prove to be much better than 
they would have been if allow^ed to continue to go on in one flock, 
all receiving the same attention. 

To make a show winner is not the work of a few days or 
weeks prior to sending them to the exhibition hall. It demands 
a series of long months of care and attention to bring them to 
the finest finish, and grow them to a proper size, strength and 
muscular conformation that is demanded for the best. The pres- 
ent demands of the show-room do not accept medium quality as 
the best, and it is absolutely necessary to commence early in the 
game to make next winter's exhibition fowls. 

Those who succeed never allow the grass to grow under their 
feet, as the saying is, but are continually on the watch to have and 
maintain a flock of exhibition fowls throughout, so that from year 
to year everything they possess is of that quality which makes 
the blue-ribbon winners. They never neglect the least or most 
simple thing they can do that 'adds to the comfort, growth and 
handsome plumage of their stock. This is the price tliat must be 
paid for quality. The best of quality can not be had in any other 
way. If you desire to be successful in the show-room, gird on 
the armor of determination and continued efforts to have them as 
they should be. 

The selection of the best is a problem that confronts every 
grower of standard-bred poultry. lu the first place, the one who 
selects must be thoroughly conversant w^ith the demands of the 
exhibition hall and the pranks and self-opinions of the judge, if 
vou will. But above all things remember that you must be almost 
if not quite as expert at selecting the best before you leave home, 
as will be the judge who will pass upon them when they reach the 
show-room. 

It is never too soon to begin the proper feeding of the speci- 
mens intended for the exhibition hall. These may" be frequently 
chosen when between six or eight weeks old, providing the eye 
and experience of the selector is equal to the occasion. Such ability 
only comes after long experience. The reason that the older 
l)reeders are the most successful in the exhibition hall is because 
they have studied the problem, and improve by their experience 
gained through hard knocks and long-continued care of their poul- 
try at home and ni the exhibition hall. 

Often we are tempted to select but a few in preparation for 
the exhibition hall. It is better by far that you should select all 
the likely specimens at first and colonize them to themselves, 
and as they improve and grow older, select those of the poorest 
quality and ship them off for the filling of orders. This will leave 
in your possession the cream of all you have grown that season, 
and it is never a difficult problem to sell the best ; never be in a 
hurry to do this, for if you will succeed as an exhibitor and breeder 
the following season you can not possess too much of the highest 



48 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

quality for your matings from which to grow your future stock. 

No one feature of an exhibition fowl counts for so much as 
does the comb and other head points. What might be an other- 
wise very attractive head is frequently marred by an ill-shaped or 
crooked comb, or badly formed wattles or ear-lobes. These de- 
fects may often be improved. Here is where the experience 
counts. The working and manipulating of a crooked cO'mb into 
a straight presentable one, the smoothing out of the wattles, or 
the flattening down of the ear-lobes becomes as easy to a well- 
trained manipulator as it does for the surgeon to work into shape 
any badly deformed portion of the face of a child. 

This may be done without being accused of faking. A little 
glycerin or vasaline taken between the fingers and rubbed against 
the badly shaped comb may soften and work it into good form. 
If this is continued for a number of times a defective member 
may be straightened out and wattles may be improved in the 
same way. Never be tempted to make use of the knife or scissors 
to trim or cut in a way that may be apparent to an amateur when 
he sees it. There are some slight surgical operations that may be 
performed in this way that are legitimate, but when it comes to 
cutting for the improvement of formation, it is seldom, if ever, 
a successful piece of work, for the judge will soon detect it. 

Fowls that have feathers on their shanks and feet may be 
very much improved for the exhibition hall by removing, at least 
sixty days prior to the exhibition, all the broken, badly-formed or 
colored feathers, provided they have grown long enough in the 
shanks and feet to have become hardened, so that the removing of 
them will not cause a blood flow from the shanks or toes. Old, 
hard, broken feathers may be removed sixty days prior to the 
exhibition with almost a certainty that new fresh feathers will 
have grown in by the time the date of the exhibition is at hand. 
For the heavy feathering of the large Cochins a little longer time 
is needed. For others the time mentioned is quite sufficient. 

Nothing is better to add luster to the plumage than sunflower 
seed. We have known Cochins, Brahmas and Langshans to be 
completely fitted for the exhibition hall with whole corn and 
sunflower seed. This combination seems to produce long, heavy, 
fluffy plumage with a fine luster, and plenty of flesh and weight. 

TRAINING FOR THE SHOW-ROOM. 

It is quite impossible to overestimate the value of good train- 
ing of fowls intended for the exhibition hall. For the training 
of these specimens, coops of the proper size, to conform to the 
size, shape and general make-up of the pens that are to be used 
in the show-room, should be selected. In this the fowls should 
be kept, first for a few hours at a time, and then finally confined 
therein for a day or two in succession until they become perfectly 
familiar with living within the coop, and lose all timidity from 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. *» 

being confined therein and handled by those who have them in 
charge. 

These fowls should also be taught not to become frightened 
at the presence of strangers, women, children, dogs and animals 
that might possibly visit the exhibition hall where they are to be 
kept. If you have a lot of exhibition fowls so well trained for 
the coop that they will scarcely notice the approach of strangers, 
and will simply look somewhat excited at the presence of a bark- 
ing dog, you may feel reasonably well assured that the specimens 
will stand the test of the disorder and surroundings of the exhi- 
bition hall. 

Considerable trouble comes to those who fail to teach their 
fowls to stand naturally in the coops and to confront those who 
approach them rather than to turn from and cower into the corner 
of the coop. A specimen that will walk boldly up to the judge as 
he approaches the door of their coop and look at him as much as 
to say, "Well, here I am for your inspection," wins the admiration 
and confidence of the judge at once. Those that turn from him 
and do anything they can to avoid being handled seldom, if ever, 
gain the much-desired awards. 

Teach your specimens that you send them to the exhibition 
hall to be ever ready and on the alert for some one to open the 
coop door and handle them. Such a bird is usually designated 
as a perfectly trained specimen, properly prepared for the 
examination of the judge and the eyes of the exhibitors. Such 
a one has many points in its favor, even before a partial examina- 
tion for quality has been made. The first impression of the speci- 
men in the coop has a lasting influence on the judge so long as 
he has this specimen under consideration. 

For the final finishing touch for the show-room, be absolutely 
certain that the specimen is thoroughly clean and free from dirt 
or bad color of any kind. It is always best to thoroughly wash 
a specimen before it is sent to the show-room. No matter of 
what breed, variety, or color it may be, it will be greatly im- 
proved by a thorough washing. Even though this may not be 
done the comb and head parts should be thoroughly cleaned with 
luke warm water and a sponge, the shanks and feet thoroughly 
washed and scrubbed with a good stiff brush, so that when the 
specimen is shown he will be as clean as it is possible to have it. 
This is called good condition, and nothing counts for more than 
this in close competition. 

When the specimen is taken to the show-room, always see 
that it is carefully placed in the exhibition coop several hours be- 
fore he is to be judged. It is best to coop, water and feed them 
the night before. Give them plenty to eat and drink at this time. 
Then, if they are to be judged in the morning, do not feed or 
water them any more until after they have been judged. 



•BO CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

LINE BREEDING PEDIGREE CHART. 

With many it is a serious question how best to keep 
a record of their matings, that they may be followed, from 
year to year, with some degree of accuracy. We believe 




the pedigree chart, shown on this page, fills the bill for this 
purpose and if one is just starting on a system of line breed- 
ing, or in building a strain, it is indispensable. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 51 

"The dotted lines represent the females as having been selected 
from the upper group, while the solid lines show the male as hav- 
ing been taken from the indicated upper group. Each circle rep- 
resents the progeny — that is, female No. i, mated to male No. 2, 
have produced group 3, which is one-half of the blood each of 
sire and dam. Females from this group mated back to sire (No- 
2) produce group 5, which is three-fourths the blood of the sire 
(No. 2), but only one-fourth the blood of dam (No. i). 

"Select a cockerel from group 5 and a pullet from group 4, or 
vice versa, and the progeny from this group produces group No. 
7, which is mathematically one-half the blood of each of the orig- 
inal pair (Nos. i and 2). This is the second step toward produc- 
ing a new strain. Females from group 8 mated back to the orig- 
inal sire (No. 2), are seven-eighths of the blood of No. 2. A 
cockerel from No. 4 mated back to original dam (No. i), pro- 
duces group 6, which is seven-eighths the blood of No. i and 
only one-eighth the blood of the original sire No. 2. 

"A male from No. 6 mated to female from group 4 produces 
group 9, which is thirteen-sixteenths the blood of original dam 
(No. i), and three-sixteenths of the original sire (No. 2). A 
male from No. 9 and a female from No. 11 (the new strain) pro- 
duced gro'-p 14. which is twenty-one thirty-seconds of the blood 
of the original dam." 

If selections are carefully made, choosing individuals of merit 
in both standard and practical qualities, true to type, the best 
marked, rrost prolific, there is no reason why the percentage of 
culls will not constantly decrease and the beauty and productive- 
ness constantly increase, where environment, care and feeding are 
carried forward with the same intelligent forethought that char- 
acterizes such a selection and matins: of standard-bred fowls. 



Crate Fattening of Chickens. 



We have many inquiries each day for our method of crate 
fattening and our formulas, and we can assure our readers that 
the trouble and expense is small compared with the increase in 
flesh and the price obtained for these birds. The primary object 
in fattening chickens is not to produce excessive fat, as might be 
inferred from the term " fattening," but to cover the chickens 
with finely flavored, edible meat. Many of the experiment sta- 
tions, as well as our personal experience, determine the age to 
most profitably fatten to be not less than three months, and in all 




Crates for Fattening Birds. 

but the Mediterranean classes they can be profitably fattened as 
old as eight months. We refer to cockerels in placing this age 
limit, as pullets and hens can be used much older to advantage. 

The regulation crates hold twelve chickens each. The frame 
of the crate is six feet long, sixteen inches wide and twenty inches 
high. It is built from 7-8 by 2 inch dressed lumber, and is di- 
vided by two tight wooden partitions into three compartments ; 
€ach compartment holds four chickens. The frame is covered with 
slats ; the slats are placed lengthwise on the bottom, back and top 
of the frame, and up and down in front. The slats can be ordinary 
four feet laths or one-half inch strips sawed from a board 7-?^ 
inch thick. The bottom, back and top slats are put on one and 
one-half inches apart. The spaces between the slats in front are 
two inches wide, to enable the chickens to feed from the trough. 
The top slats are cut above each partition and six strips two inches 
wide are. nailed under them. The three doors so formed are 
hinged to the rear corner piece of the frame. The crates are 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



53 



T A ltht"v" trough, two and one-half inches ins.de .s 
'r': rti'floor: an"'the iptr'inside edge is two inches from the 




Ready for the Oven, Crate Fattened Orpington. 

with short, straight legs, set well apart. Large framed chickens. 




Crate Fattened Fowls. 

with prominent breast bones, cannot be so ^ati^*^;;'";"^ .{r'"™';ft 
PrrMinrl oats f^nclv ground, or w.th the coarser hulls sifted out, 
"f^ m the\'asl of all the grain mixtures. Ground con 
can be fed in a limited quantity-not more than one-t^fth of the 
grain by weight. Ground corn fed in excess w.ll result tn a yel- 
low flesh. g^,i.jspACTORY MEAL MIXTURES. 

T Ground oats (coarser hulls removed). 

I sTftings from rolled oats (no hulling dust should be 
included). 



«4 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

3. Equal parts ground oats, ground barley and ground 
buckwheat. 

4. Two pounds ground oats,, two pounds ground buck- 
wheat, one pound ground corn. 

The ground meal should be mixed to a thin porridge with 
thick sour skim-milk, or buttermilk. On the average, 10 
pounds of meal require from fifteen to seventeen pounds of 
sour skim-milk. A small quantity of salt should be added to 
the mash. When sufficient skim-milk or buttermilk cannot be 
obtained for mixing the mashes, a quantity of animal and 
taw vegetable food should be added to the fattening ration. 

The most profitble period for fattening is about twenty- 
four days. 

It is well to divide this period into the first and second 
weeks, during which time the chickens are fed the ground 
meal and skim-milk mashes ; and the remaining ten days 
when tallow should be added to the mashes. 

The chickens should fast for one day after being placed 
in crates. 

The chickens should be free from lice. 

Before the chickens are placed in the crates, they require 
a thorough dusting with insect powder or sulphur. They 
should be again dusted three days before they are killed. 

The chickens should be fed sparingly the first week. 

A small quantity of the fattening food should be spread 
along the troughs, and as this is eaten, more food is added, 
but not as much as the chickens would consume. The food 
should be given three times a day, and after feeding the 
troughs should be cleaned and turned over. The chickens 
should receive in: the trough fresh water twice a day, and grit 
two or three times during the week. 

The second week the chickens should be given as much 
food as they will eat. 

They should be fed twice a day. Half an hour after 
feeding, the feed troughs should be cleansed and turned over. 
Water and grit should also be supplied as in the first week. 

The last ten days the chickens should be fed as in the 
second week. Tallow should be added to their ration. 

At the commencement of this period, one pound of tal- 
low a day should be added to the mashes for every seventy 
chickens. The quantity of tallow is gradually increased, so 
that at the latter part of the period one pound of tallow is fed 
to fiftv chickens. This paste can be mixed with the mashes. 
The chickens should receive the fattening food twice a day, 
and also water and grit. 

The chickens should be starved 36 hours before killing. 

This will prevent food remaining in the crop and in- 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 55 

testines, which would decompose and spoil the flavor of the 
birds. Several hours after the last feed allow the chickens 
what water they wish to drink. They should then have a 
complete fast until thev are killed. 

The chickens should be killed by dislocating the neck. 

DIRECTIONS FOR DISLOCATING THE NECK. 

With the left hand hold the chicken's legs and wings in 
one firm grasp. Place the first finger of the right hand on 
the right side of the neck and the remaining fingers on the 
left side. Grasp the head in the hollow of the hand, with the 
fork of the fintgers behind the head where it joins the neck. 
The back of the chicken being upwards, hold the legs against 
the left hip and the head near the right thigh or knee. Bend 
the head backwards as far as possible, and at the same time 
stretch the neck, when it is dislocted immediately; pull the 
head about one and one-half inches from the neck. Hold 
the wings firmly after killing, and allow the chicken's head 
to hang down, so that the blood can collect in the neck ; the 
head is attached to the body simply by the skin of the neck. 

ADVANTAGES OF THIS MODE OF KILLING. 

The body of the chicken is as free from blood as when 
any other method of killing is employed. The blood of the 
chicken remains ini the one and one-half inch space between 
the head and the neck ; the weight of blood will pay for the 
plucking. Plucking is not an unpleasant operation. Air is 
not permitted to enter and dry out the chicken. 

The chicken should now be dry plucked. Plucking 
should be commenced as soon as the chicken's neck is dislo- 
cated. The chicken is not drawn. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PLUCKING. 

While still holding the chicken in the left hand, extract 
the tail feathers and the quill feathers of the wing. Allow 
the chicken's head to hang down, and commence plucking 
the feathers on the back and wings ; then pluck the breast and 
lower part of the meek, and work back on the body to the tail 
and turning the bird over again, finish the back and wings. 

Remove all pin feathers and make the chicken as attrac- 
tive as possible. Use care in plucking so as not to tear the 
skin. If a tear is made, have the flesh brought together with 
white thread. 

If the chickens are to be shipped to market, they must 
be thoroughly cooled and dry on the skin before they are 
placed in the shipping cases. Unless the chickens are arti- 



56 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

ficially cooled, they should not be packed into the cases until 
twenty-four hours after killing. 

CROSSES FOR MARKET STOCK. 

In the chapter on "Breeds Best Adapted to California" 
we have treated at some length on the standard varieties best 
adapted for meat purposes. While this list covers almost 
every requirement of the market poultryman, it is often found 
profitable to make what is known as "one-year crosses;" that 
is, cross two standard varieties and use their offspring for 
market purposes only and not allow the crossing to go further. 
As a rule a cross that is properly balanced will be a quick 
grower and make am excellent bird to put on flesh in the 
fattening pen. After considerable experimenting we have 
found that any of the English or American varieties crossed 
on the Asiatic are much larger than the straight-bred 
English or American bird. In this cross it is best to use the 
male of the smaller breed on hens of the larger variety. Fot' 
example, take half a dozen Light Brahma females of good- 
size and mate them to either a Silver Grey Dorking, White 
Orpington or White Rock male and the result will be a fine 
lot of birds larger than the male but having a much plumper 
and more easily fattened carcass than the Brahma female. 
This cross is intended to produce soft roasters, as birds from- 
such a mating will not give the quick feathering desired for 
broilers or fryers. ; 

Another good cross is the Indian Game male crossed on 
Asiatic females for soft roasters, or Cornish Indian Game 
females mated to a Brown Leghorn for broilers or fryers. A 
male of any of the Mediterranean varieties crossed on any 
of the American or English classes produces an excellent 
broiler or fryer. We have found a cross of a White Leghorn 
male crossed on White or Barred Rocks, White or Buff 
Orpingtons or White Wyandottes produced the best of fast- 
growing and quick feathering broilers and fryers. Of course 
all these birds can also be carried to the soft roaster age and 
make fine birds for the smaller soft roaster demand. While 
we believe that the standard varieties cover the demand for 
the dressed or live poultry market we also know that proper 
crossing often pays the breeder. One mistake that many 
make is in breeding back to these crosses the second season. 
It is impossible to carry on breeding operations with the 
cross-bred birds after the first season without loss to the- 
breeder. 



Caponizing. What Are Capons? 

Capons are aptly termed the "finest chicken meat in the 
world," for there is nothing growing feathers their equal or 
superior. A capon is neither a rooster nor a hen — it is noth- 
ing else than a capon. After removing the testicles from 
the cockerel, its nature becomes entirely changed. They take 
on a more rapid growth, are more tame, awkward in carriage 
and always exceedingly lazy, take on a very heavy and 
beautiful plumage, the comb and wattles cease to grow, the 
spurs do not develop as in the cockerel, and being cast off 
by both rooster and hen, he soon shows a fondness for the 
society of little chicks. 

BEST TIME TO CAPONIZE. 

Fowls hatched any time of the year make fine capons; 
no ill results follow the operation at any time of the year. 
The bird should be from two to three months old (not over 
six months), and weigh not less than a pound to a pound and 
a half. The size is equally as important as the age. April, 
May, June, July, August, September and October are the 
months generally taken for caponizing, for the reason that 
spring chickens arrive at proper age and weight, during these 
months; also because cockerels caponized then arrive at the 
proper age and weight during the months of November, De- 
cember, January, February, March, April and May, at which 
time there is the greatest demand for them in the cities and 
highest prices secured. 

PROFIT IN CAPONS. 

Caponize the chicks and you have at once laid the founda- 
tion for a handsome profit for some time to come. Outside 
of the cardinal points of profit, the simplicity of the operation 
(when proper instruments are used) recommends itself to 
everyone. A boy ten years old can readily perform the 
operation, and anyone can soon become an expert. 

To the poultry raiser we would say we know of no source 
of profit bringing larger returns for the outlay than raising 
capons, the profit in a great majority of cases being over lOO 
per cent. The question of assured profit is an all-convincing 
argument in any line, and pre-eminently so to the poultry- 
men, whose losses are added to from various unlooked-for 
sources. 



58 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

DIRECTIONS FOR CAPONIZING. 

From twenty-four to thirty hours before performing the 
operation, select such cockerels as you intend to caponize, 
confining them in a clean, airy coop or room without either 
food or water. The best time to confine them is at early 
morning, as their long fast will then end about noon of the 
following day, at which time the operation is performed. 
Should the day be cloudy or wet, do not caponize them, but 
let the operation go until you have a bright and fair day. 
It is necessary that you have all the light possible in the 
matter. Now, after slightly wetting the spot, proceed to turn- 
down the feathers from the upper part of the last two ribs 
and just in front of the thigh joint. Pull the flesh on the side 
down toward the hip, and when the operation is finished 
the cut between the ribs will be entirely closed by the skin 
going" back to its place. 




MAKING INCISION. PROPER INSTRUMENTS. 

We have laid considerable stress upon having proper 
instruments in caponizing, and the more we read of the liter- 
ary effusions appearing in the numerous papers today touch- 
ing caponizing instruments the more need we feel there is 
to caution the inexperienced ones. While it is not cruel to 
caponize, it is inhuman to butcher or to cause unnecessary 
pain. 

CAPONIZING IS NOT CRUEL. 

A large number of persons hesitate ini caponizing, feeling 
it to be cruel to the bird. To these we wish to bring our ex- 
periences in this matter proving to the contrary. This is 
a greatly mistaken notion, and the operation bestows an un- 
limited amount of kindness on the bird, even if there were 
no other considerations or return. The writer has seen 
cockerels fly at one another time and again, tearing flesh 
and feathers with beak and cutting with spurs. Before the 
combatants could be separated there has been: a disfigured 
comb, probably a blinded eye and a generally cut-up bird. 
This is the essence of cruelty. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



59 



INSERTING SPREADER. 

After caponizing, the habits of the bird are entirely 
changed. Their disposition is quiet and peaceable, habits 
mild and tending to a solitary life and perfectly contented 
wherever situated. They no longer chase about the farm 
spoiling for a fight and running ofif flesh as fast as put on. 
They no longer arouse the whole neighborhood from morn- 
ing until night with their incessant crowing, but, on the cour 




trary, become models of good dispositions, leading a quiet life 
that will surely bring large returns to the raiser. An opera- 
tion that does away with so much inborn evil cannot be con- 
sidered cruel. 

REMOVING TESTICLES. TREATMENT AFTER OPERATION. 

Beginners have an idea that the caponizing operation is 
a very severe shock to the bird and a great drain on its vital 
organ. This is a mistake. The testicles are not a vital part. 
Their removal is of little consequence so far as the bird's 
health and vitality are concerned, the only difference it makes 
is in regard to the sexual development of the bird. The thin 




membrane which envelops the intestines is not a vital part. 
The holes which we have torn in it are an injury which 
amounts to almost nothing. The only real injuries inflicted, 
therefore, are the two incisions, and these are merely flesh 
wounds of the simplest character, and by no means severe. 
The skin, having slipped back in its natural position, covers 
the flesh wound between the ribs ; the cut in the skin, and that 
in the flesh, on each side, cannot well be in a more favorable 



60 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

shape for rapid healing. There is no need of sewing the 
edges of the wound together, or using any kind of salve, or 
plaster, or wash. Just trust in Nature, the best physician, 
and you will not be disappointed. 

At the beginning of the caponizing season, a "capon hos- 
pital" might be put up. This is simply a space containing, 
say, two or three square feet of floor surface to each capon, 
and covered with a low roof as a protection from rain and sun, 
and tightly enclosed with wire netting. Inside is a coop in 
which the convalescent fowls spend the nights. A box in 
one corner is kept well supplied with soft food (bran and meal 
moisted with skim-milk), and a dish in the other corner 
contains the water which should be frequently renewed. 
Some of our instructors tell us to feed lightly as first ; others 
advise giving all the food that the birds will eat. Just as 
soon as a capon is put into the "hospital," and once gets sight 
of the feed-box, he will forget all the trials which he has just 
experienced, and at oiuce proceed to fill his crop. The birds 
may be confined in close quarters for at least eight days after 
the operation. Many of them "wind-puff" badly, a lot of air 
gathering under the outside skin and giving the capon a 
puft'ed-up appearance and probably causing much incon- 
venience. Look the confined birds over once a day, and give 
speedy relief where needed by pricking the puffed-up skin 
with the point of a keen penknife. Part of the birds do not 
need this attention ; others wind-puff right along for a week 
or so, and need frequent touches with the penknife. Usually 
one can tell by the appearance, and always by the feeling, 
whether there is wind-puff and cause for treatment. In con- 
sequence of this confinement, of the treatment and of their 
voracious appetite, the capons become exceedingly tame and 
tractable. 

The straw, leaves or soft earth on the floor of the "hos- 
pital" should, for the sake of cleanliness, be often renewed. 

When the period of convalesence (eight or ten days) is 
past, the capons should have their liberty. They will not 
wander off very far, but stay most of the time near where 
they are accustomed to get their regular rations. At night 
drive them into the "capon house," a warm stall with low 
roosts, regularly cleaned and disinfected. Capons do not 
seem to be particular about their roosting place. 

How many capons may be crowded together in one 
building seems to be a disputed point. Some experts claim 
that 40 to 50 is the limit of safety. We have had 80 to 100 
roosting together in a rather small house, the capons having 
free range in day time, with satisfactory results. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 61 

THE BEST BREEDS FOR CAPONIZING. 

The selecting of the proper birds for caponizing is an im- 
portant matter. Since one of the main benefits . derived from 
caponizing is the increased size of the bird, it is necessary that 
we select birds that are naturally of a large bone and frame. 
This cuts all of the Mediterranean varieties out of the class suit- 
able for capons and leaves the American, English, Asiatic, 
French and Game classes as the best breeds to select from. 

From an experience with all of the latter classes, extending 
over several seasons as regards their value as mature capons, 
we have found that the Orpington, Rock, Wyandotte or Indian 
Game cockerels make by far the largest and best capons of the 
standard varieties. In the chapter on "crosses" we have de- 
scribed a number of mixtures that make extra quality capons. 
In fact all of those given as "roaster" crosses will produce cock- 
erels that if caponized will make the highest quality in the capon 
market. 

CALIFORNIA AS A CAPON MARKET. 

A few years ago capons w^ere unknown in the California 
markets, but thanks to a few enterprising poultry raisers and a 
demand for the best in poultry meat by the tourists from eastern 
cities, they are now in great demand and the supply is consider- 
ably below the demand. The many large tourist hotels scat- 
tered over Southern California will consume all the capons 
turned out for some years to come. We know of one of these 
hotels that offered to contract with a breeder in Los Angeles 
for 2000 capons to be delivered during the coming winter. 
This was only one of many that "vould gladly use capons if they 
could secure them. Besides these are the hundreds of private 
families with large means that w^ant the best in everything and 
would gladly use capons instead of the tough roasters they are 
compelled to use at present. Prices ranging from 2>^c to 6oc 
per lb. are paid for first-class dressed capons, and when we con- 
sider the fact that they are the cheapest of all fowls to raise 
and fatten, and that the operation increases the natural weight 
of the birds from 5 to 8 lbs., it will be seen that there is a hand- 
some profit in producing capons for the California markets. 






The Selfridge Caponizing Spoon. 



Lice and Mites. 

In our mild climate lice and mites thrive the year around 
and the successful poultryman must keep everlastingly after 
them to keep his birds in the best condition. These pests are 
no harder to keep in check here than they are elsewhere, but 
with our mild winters it is necessary to keep up the war of ex- 
termination every month in the year. If one keeps the vermin 
matter well in hand there is very little work attached to it, 
but once let a poultry plant get infested and it takes a great deal 
of hard work to exterminate the pests. 

The louse plague is the result of contagion. The parasites 
are introduced upon birds, and they multiply and increase to 
a remarkable extent when the conditions are favorable. It has 
been estimated that the second generation from a single louse 
may number twenty-five hundred individuals, and the third gen- 
eration may reach the enormous number of one hundred and 
twenty-five thousand ; and all of these may be produced in the 
course of eight weeks. It is not surprising, therefore, that, al- 
though birds have so few parasites upon them when well cared 
for that these insests can not be discovered, a few weeks of neg- 
lect and unfavorable surroundings may bring an entire change 
and reveal them covered with vermin, exhausted and emaciated. 

The dififerent species of lice and mites are as easily dis- 
tinguished from each other by experts as are the different species 
of birds. Their peculiarities are inherited from generation to 
generation, and they continue to live upon the same species of 
birds. The hens, the turkeys, the pigeons, the ducks, the geese, 
and the Guinea fowls each have their peculiar species of lice 
which live upon them alone, and there are but comparatively 
few kinds of lice which live upon two or more species of birds. 
We may, consequently, favor the multiplication of lice by mak- 
ing the conditions favorable for them, but we can not produce 
lice where none exist. 

The conditions which favor the multiplication of lice and 
other external parasites are found partly in the birds and partly 
in the surroundings. Unhealthy or unthrifty birds, or those 
which from any cause lack strength and vigor, are most subject 
to the attacks of such parasites, and may be found literally 
covered with them when other members of the flock are com- 
paratively free from their attacks. There are birds so strong, 
healthy and vigorous that lice can not thrive upon them. Exer- 
cise, proper feeding, pure air, all have a tendency to keep the 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 6a 

birds in a condition unfavorable to the existence of the parasites. 
On the other hand accumulations of manure and filth, close con- 
finement of the birds, lack of dusting places, buildings with 
crevices in which the insects may hide, and damp, dark and 
badly-ventilated houses are conditions which favor the parasites 
and lead to their rapid development. 

The poultry yard may be kept practically free from these 
insect pests, but there is always a liability of their introduction 
with purchased fowls or with birds that have become infested 
at shows and other places. Contagion must, therefore, be ac- 
cepted as the cause of this plague, and it should be guarded 
against on the same principles as are the infective elements of 
other communicable diseases. 

Young chickens hatched under hens almost invariably have 
lice upon them and should be treated as soon as removed from 
the nests. An efficacious and safe remedy in this case is pure 
lard. It should be carefully rubbed into the feathers upon the 
top of the head and under the throat. Lard obstructs the breath- 
ing pores of the lice and soon kills them. Nothing should be 
mixed with the lard to increase its activity as such young birds 
are very sensitive to the action of irritants and are seriously in- 
jured by them. Some recommend mixing powdered sulphur 
with the lard for this purpose ; but it should on no account be 
used on small chickens as it causes inflammation of the eyes and 
arrests the growth. Pure lard is harmless and will kill the lice, 
consequently it can be used with full confidence. A small 
quantity may also be rubbed under the wings, but this is not 
usually considered necessarv until the chicks are a week or two 
old. 

Chickens hatched in the incubator should be free from lice, 
and will be unless the incubator has in some way become in- 
fested. It is well to examine even incubator chicks occasionally 
for lice as the incubator or brooder may have these insects in- 
troduced into them in various ways and then become favorable 
places for the growth of the parasites as w^ell as for the develop- 
ment of the birds. The older birds, but not the hens with young 
chickens, may be anointed about the heads, under the wings, and 
around the vent with an ointment made by thoroughly mixing a 
teaspoon ful of flowers of sulphur with an ounce of lard. Some 
use instead of this ointment or in combination with it insecticide 
powder, which is blown or dusted into the feathers. This opera- 
tion is best performed by holding the bird by the legs, head 
downwards, so that the tendency of the feathers will be to fall 
away from the body. Then apply the powder thoroughly with 
a dredging box or a powder bellows. If the bird is held over a 
large piece of paper the powder which fails to adhere to the 
feathers and skin can be saved and used a second time. It is 



64 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

considered a good plan to moisten the roots of the feathers with 
soapy water in order to make powders adhere. Some poultry- 
men dip their fowls in a solution containing one per cent, car- 
bolic acid. This solution is made by mixing i 1-4 ounces of 
pure carbolic acid with i gallon of hot water. Larger quantities 
may be made in the same proportion. The solution is allowed 
to cool and is then put in a vessel suitable for immersing the 
bird to be treated. The fowls should be held in this liquid for 
about a minute and care should be taken to wet every portion 
of the body and head. Creolin will probably prove more sat- 
isfactory for this treatment than carbolic acid, as it is equally 
efficacious in killing insects, but is less poisonous to birds and 
the odor is less objectionable to the operator. It is used in the 
strength of 2J/4 ounces mixed with a gallon of water. 

The treatment of the birds with some of the substances 
mentioned, although it is indispensable for the control of the 
parasites, is not alone sufficient. The buildings must receive 
prompt attention and thorough treatment. The droppings should 
be carefully removed and mixed with fine, dry road dust, ashes 
or lime. Fine dust is destructive to the lice and hence should 
be plentifully used about the buildings, and given to the fowls 
in boxes so large that they can thoroughly dust themselves in 
it. Pyrethrum and sulphur may be mixed with the dust in such 
boxes and render it more deadly to the insects. 

The floor of the poultry house or pigeon cote should be 
thoroughly scraped, and covered with fresh sand or road dust. 
The roosts and all loose pieces of wood should be removed and 
then the whole inside and also the parts which have been re- 
moved should be well wetted by spraying x^ith a solution made 
by dissolving 6 ounces of crude carbolic acid to the gallon of 
water. This should be mixed with the water at nearly the boil- 
ing point as carbolic acid does not readily mix with cold water. 
At least once a year the inside woodwork and walls should be 
given a good coat of lime wash to which 4 ounces of crude car- 
bolic acid for each gallon has been added. The nests should 
also be cleaned out, drenched with boiling water or carbolic 
solution, and when dry sprinkled with insecticide powder and 
bedded with fresh straw. The carbolic preparations should al- 
ways be used in the morning and the buildings thoroughly ven- 
tilated during the day so that the odor will not be so strong as 
to be injurious to the birds at night. 

The treatment recommended above, if thoroughly carried 
out, is sufficient to keep the troublesome external parasites either 
eradicated or under such control that they will not prove in- 
jurious. For convenience various other methods have been 
devised which are more or less effectual. Some throw dry lime 
dust against the roof and walls of the buildings ; others fumigate 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



65 



by burning sulphvir and leaving the doors and windows closed 
for a few hours, there being, of course, no birds left inside at 
the time; still others fumigate by placing open bottles of bisul- 
phide of carbon about the poultry house. Aniseed is distasteful 
to most of the vermin of birds, and is an excellent remedy when 
powdered and dusted into the feathers, or when strewn into the 
nest boxes. A small quantity of the essential oil mixed with 
hot water renders this more effectual in destroying the mites 
about the roosts, nests and other woodwork. 




Diseases and Cures. 



COMMON CAUSES OF DISEASES. 

In order to act intelligently for the prevention and cure of a 
disease, we must know something of its cause ; and in order to 
determine the cause, we must know the agencies which are liable 
to injuriously affect the diseased organ. If it is found that the 
digestive organs are affected, we are naturally led to inquire into 
the character and quantity of food that has been taken ; the 
amount of exercise which the birds have had ; whether they have 
had access to gravel or grit ; whether the alimentary canal is ob- 
structed at any point ; whether the affected birds have been un- 
duly exposed to cold or to draughts of air ; and, finally, whether 
they have been attacked by any of the parasites, vegetable or ani- 
mal, which are known to cause disturbance of the digestive func- 
tions. If the respiratory organs are diseased, it is proper to in- 
quire if the birds have been chilled or exposed to draughts of 
air, or to a damp atmosphere ; or whether they are the prey of 
parasitic organisms such as multiply in this portion of the bird's 
body. If the skin, comb, wattles, or feet are affected, the most 
likely causes are mechanical injuries and parasites. If lameness 
is exhibited it is probably due to injuries or rheumatism. If the 
general health is affected as shown by mal-nutrition, paleness, 
and loss of weight, the most common causes are indigestion from 
improper food, and the attacks of internal or external parasites. 
Diseases of the brain result from exposure to too great heat, and 
sunstroke, from over exertion, and from too high feeding with 
insufficient exercise. Diseases of the ovaries and oviducts result 
from the bird being too fat ; from these organs being over stimu- 
lated, or from the ration being improperly adjusted to the needs 
of the body. 

OBJECTS OE MEDICAL TREATMENT. 

In the treatment of sick birds, medicines should not be ad- 
ministered blindly, but on the contrary there should be a clear 
idea, before the remedy is selected, of what is to be accomplished. 
Otherwise, it is probable that more harm than good will result. 
In giving medicines intelligently there are three distinct objects 
which one may attempt to accomplish : 

1. To neutralize, remove or destroy the cause of the disease. 

2. To cause the repair of the affected tissues. 

3. To counteract or remove the symptoms. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 67 

SIMPLE CATARRH. 

One of the most common diseases of birds is catarrh. It is 
sometimes mild, attacks but a few birds in a flock and is easily 
overcome. At other times it is more severe, affects all or nearly 
all the birds in z flock and only yields to energetic and prolonged 
treatment. In case of long-continued cold and damp weather, 
birds in different flocks may be affected at the same time, leading 
to the suspicion of an infectious disease, although it is really 
due to climatic conditions acting over a large territory at the 
same time. It is important to make a careful examination as soon 
as the disease appears and to determine whether it is simple catarrh 
or infectious catarrh, as the treatment to be adopted in the two 
cases differs materially. 

In simple, non-contagious catarrh, the affected birds are more 
or less dull, they are disinclined to move, their appetites are di- 
minished, they sneeze and the mucous membrane is thickened, 
causing some obstruction to breathing through the nostrils. There 
soon appears a thin, watery discharge which later becomes thicker 
and glutinous, the eyes are often watery, the eyelids swollen and 
sometimes held together by a thick, viscid secretion. In yery 
severe cases, the birds are somnolent, the plumage is erect and 
roughened, the nostrils are completely obstructed by the thick sec- 
retion, the breathing is entirely through the mouth and is accom- 
panied by a wheezing or snoring sound, the appetite is entirely 
lost, a thin liquid escapes from the mouth and the bird soon be- 
comes exhausted and dies. In the milder cases simple catarrh 
may disappear without treatment, in the course of two or three 
days ; or, in case the cause is allowed to persist, the birds may be- 
come worse and die or the disease may become chronic and con- 
tinue its effects for a long time. 

Treatment. — Catarrh is best prevented by keeping the birds 
in a strong, vigorous condition through proper exercise, good 
food, clean houses and ventilation without draughts. In case 
symptoms of this disease are observed, search out and remove 
the cause, and give the birds stimulating food with some cayenne 
pepper mixed into it. 

If the disease appears serious, wash out the mouth and nos- 
trils twice a day with boric acid solution of the strength of fifteen 
grains to the ounce of water, or creoline solution (one per cent). 
The following remedy is highly recommended by Megnin : 

Gentian root .... 4 drams. 

Ginger 4 " 

Sulphate of iron . . . 2 " 

Hyposulphite of sodium . i " 

Salicvlate of sodium . . i " 



68 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

These substances are to be pulverized and then thoroughly 
mixed. The dose is three or four grains a day for a medium- 
sized fowl. Its effects are stimulating and tonic. 

ROUP, CONTAGIOUS CATARRH. 

The early symptoms of this disease can not be clearly dis- 
tinguished from those of simple catarrh, though the dulness and 
prostration are usually greater and there is often a peculiar of- 
fensive odor, which are valuable points to aid in reaching a de- 
cision. There is at first a thin, watery discharge from the nos- 
trils with some obstruction to breathing from swelling of the mu- 
cous inembrane. The discharge soon becomes thicker and more 
sticky or glutinous, causing the affected birds to sneeze and 
shake their heads in an effort to free the air passages. The sub- 
jects are dull, quiet, without much appetite and more or less 
feverish. The plumage is rough, the wings pendant, the comb 
and wattles dark red. 

As the disease advances, the inflammation extends from the 
mucous membrane of the nostrils along the internal surface of 
the passage connecting the nostrils with the orbital space or cavity 
surrounding the eyes. The orbital space in birds is relatively 
very large and has an angular projection towards the point of 
the beak. There is, consequently, considerable space between the 
eye-ball and the bony walls surrounding it, which is known as 
the orbital space or orbital sinus. This space is lined with a mu- 
cous membrane which is continuous with that of the nostrils and 
in such close relations with it that an inflammatory process readily 
extends from one to the other. Very often in roup, this membrane 
is inflamed throughout these passages, and the process is so 
acute that the surface becomes eroded and ulcerated. The secre- 
tion, instead of remaining fluid as in simple catarrh, changes at 
this period, is abundant, thick, yellowish, purulent, and cheesy. 
This secretion accumulates and obstructs the passages. It forms 
around the eye and forces the eye-ball out of the socket and at 
the same time collects under the eyelids or on the corner, some- 
times simulating a false membrane. It, also, plugs the nasal 
passages, presses down the palate, obstructs the breathing and 
may prevent swallowing. 

The affected birds in the advanced stages of the disease 
present a most miserable appearance. The beak is kept open in 
order to breathe, the sight is destroyed by inflammatory pro- 
ducts, the eyes are often closed and bulging from the head, the 
breathing is very difficult, a thick, sticky discharge escapes from 
the nostrils, the subjects are emaciated, prostrated, sleepy and 
perhaps unconscious. When these severe symptoms appear, the 
strength is soon exhausted and death follows. 

Contagious catarrh spreads rapidly through a flock, affecting 
the greater part of the birds and causing the death of a variable 



:l;Vi. 

CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 69 

proportion according to the virulence of the contagion. It is/ 
always a very serious disease and is difficult to eradicate. - 

That roup is a contagious disease admits of no questions- 
Its origin in a flock can frequently be traced to the introduc- ■ 
tion of a bird from some other premises where the disease 
exists. Often, it is contracted by exposure to affected birds 
at shows, or to the contagion clinging to coops, houses or in- 
fected runs. jNIany writers teach that roup may originate from 
exposure to cold or draughts of air. This prevalent opinion 
is probably accounted for by the fact that the first stages of 
roup are almost indentical in their symptoms with simple 
catarrh or a common cold. It is not likely, however, that 
such exposure is sufficient to produce roup. Contagious dis- 
eases are caused by parasites, each specific disease having its 
particular species of animal or vegetable life to call it into ex- 
istence, and without its particular parasite the disease cannot 
be developed. It is, therefore, logical to conclude that if the 
germ or parasite of roup is not already infecting a given 
poultry yard, the disease will not appear until this parasite is 
introduced. Colds and catarrh may become aggravated and 
even fatal by neglect and continued exposure to the existing 
causes, but they will not develop into roup unless the con- 
tagion of the last-named disease is present. 

The measures to be adopted for the prevention of roup 
are the same as for other contagious diseases. Exclude the 
contagion by every means that can be devised. Do not allow 
poultry^ animals or men to come directly from an infected 
premises to a healthy flock. Be careful in buying new birds, 
and these as well as all birds that have been to shows should 
be isolated for two or three weeks until their healthfulness is 
demonstrated. If the disease once appears in the flock use 
disinfectants freely and isolate diseased individuals. If the 
birds are not very valuable it is sometimes better to dispose 
of every one, and after disinfection begin with new blood. 
The contagion is persistent and can only be eradicated by the 
most thorough measures. 

The medical treatment may be undertaken with good 
chances of success, but requires time and constant attention. 
Whether it will pay, depends upon the value of the birds and 
of the services of the party who cares for them. Antiseptic 
and healing applications are indicated to the interior of the 
nostrils, the cleft of the palate, the eye, and other affected 
parts. If swellings containing thick pus or cheesy matter ■ 
form upon the head, they should be opened with a sharp in- 
strument, the contents removed and the wound treated with 
antiseptics. Antiseptic powders are convenient for treating 
the wounds caused in such operations. Among these iodo- 



W CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

form and aristol are the best. The wound may be kept filled 
with either of these powders unrtil it is healed. The antiseptic 
solutions may be injected into the nostrils or into the cleft in 
the roof of the mouth which communicates with the nostrils, 
by using a small syringe, a medicine dropper, or even an oil 
can, such as is used for oiling machinery. A syringe is, of 
course, the best. The solutions most suited are boric acid 
fifteen grains to the ounce of water ; carbolic acid or creolin 
in two per cent, solution ; peroxide of hydrogen diluted with 
an equal quantity of water ; permanganate of potash one grain 
to the ounce ; or sulphate of copper five grains to the ounce. 
Some persons have reported great success from the use of 
coal oil (kerosene) either pure or diluted with equal parts of 
olive oil. Megnin has had excellent results with a five per 
cent, solution of sulphate of copper injected into the nostrils, 
the cleft of the palate, the affected eyes and the wounds made 
m removing purulent collections from the sinus in front of 
the eyes. This solution appears rather strong and should be 
used at first with care and ini an experimental way until its 
effects are seen. When the head shows signs of considerable 
inflammation it may be anointed with sweet (olive) oil, vase- 
line, or equal parts of sweet oil and coal oil. 

In selecting from the remedies mentioned, it is well to 
begin with the milder ones, such as boric acid, peroxide of 
hydrogen' or carbolic acid. Keep the birds comfortable and 
free from draughts of air. Give stimulating and easily di- 
gested food containing a small proportion of meat scrap. It 
is important to dispose of the carcasses of dead birds promptly 
by burning or deep burial. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the trachea 
and bronichial tubes, or bronchitis, is sometimes due to the 
extensioni of the catarrhal process from the head, or it may 
be induced by the action of the causes which produce catarrh. 
The birds are somewhat dull, with loss of appetite, accelerated 
breathing and cough. On listening to the respiration a blow- 
ing or whistling sound may be heard in the air tubes, m the 
early stages of the disease, caused by the air being drawn 
over the dry and thickened membrane; later, a rattling or 
bubbling sound is caused by air passing through accumula- 
tions of mucous. In the majority of cases the symptoms are not 
serious, and, under favorable conditions, they soon disappear. 
Occasionallv, the malady increases in intensity, the plumage 
becomes rough, the wings droop, the breathing is labored and 
difficult, the bird frequently opens it beak in order to obtam 
sufficient air, it is sleepy, torpid and exhausted. In such se- 



CALIPORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 71 

vere forms of the disease a large proportion of the affected 
birds die. 

Treatment. — The first indication in simple bronchitis is 
to place the affected birds in a comfortable, dry and reason- 
ably warm place, where they will not be subjected to draughts 
of air, but where the ventilation is good. Give soft and cool- 
ing food, such as stale bread, or a mixture of bran: and mid- 
dlings moistened with milk. Inhalation of steam, or vapor 
from boiling water in which hops or a small quantity of car- 
bolic acid or creolin has been placed, is beneficial. Give 
with the food two grains of black antimony twice a day. A 
small quantity of flax seed steeped in hot water makes a 
demulcent drink that often gives great relief; and, in the ab- 
sence of this, honey or gum arable may be added to the drink- 
ing water with advantage. If the attack promises to be se- 
vere, it may sometimes be checked in the early stages by 
giving ten drops of spirits of turpentine in a teaspoonful of 
castor oil and repeating this dose after five or six hours. It 
should not be conitinvied after there are signs of purging, for 
fear of exhausting the strength of the patient. In the very 
acute cases, where the whistling or snoring sounds with the 
respiration indicate a croupous form of inflammation, and 
where the gasping shows great obstruction of the air passage, 
relief may be obtained by giving from three to six drops of 
either the syrup or the wine of ipecac. 

Medicines should be administered very carefully in dis- 
eases affecting the trachea and bronchia as otherwise they 
may enter the air passages and increase the irritation. 

CANKER. 

This is evidently a form of roup, and is also termed 
diphtheria in some forms of the disease. A cheesy substance 
forms in mouth and throat and often on end of windpipe. 
Remove the growth with sharp instrument and touch with 
piece of cotton dipped in permanganate of potash. There 
should be no part of flesh where growth has been untouched 
by the potash. In all cases where I use the knife I use a 
wash of peroxide of hydrogen and always wash instruments 
in this antiseptic. Treat the bird's blood with Epsom salts 
and sulphur. With young birds two applications will usually 
be sufficient, but older l)irds are harder to cure. Give cod 
liver oil in capsule if the bird falls off much in strength. 

GAPES. 

This disease is observed most frequently in young birds 
from one to four weeks old. The affected individuals are 
seen: to be less livelv than usual ; thev extend tlie head fre- 



72 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

quently and widely open the beak — that is, they gape. If 
watched, they are seen to gape every minute or two, and as 
the disease progresses, this gaping is repeated several times 
a minute. 

The gape worm is a small round worm, red in color, and 
both the male and female are found attached by their mouths 
to the mucous membrane of the bird's trachea. The female 
is slightly more than one-half inch in length, while the male 
is only one-fifth inch. 

They suck the blood of the bird, which forms their nour- 
ishment, and, in doing this, set up considerable irritation and 
even inflammation. The large and vigorous birds are not 
seriously disturbed by the presence of this parasite, particu- 
larly if the worms are not very numerous. Small and weak 
birds, however, are unable to successfully resist the com- 
bined effect of the loss of blood, the inflammation of the 
trachea, and the obstructed respiration. The strength is 
rapidly lost, and the windpipe becomes obstructed until finally 
the bird dies of exhaustion or asphyxia. 

Separate the sick birds from the well ones as soon as the 
disease is detected and clean up the coops, pens and houses where 
they have been. 

Disinfect all these places and also the drinking troughs 
or cups with a five per cent, solution of crude carbolic acid 
or with boiling water. Burn the bodies of the birds which 
die. Keep the infected birds in a house which can be easily 
cleaned and disinfected, and see that this house is kept dis- 
infected with hot water or five per cent, carbolic acid solution. 
Megnin recommends for disinfecting enclosures and contam- 
inated runs, sprinkling with a solution of one part of salicylic 
or sulphuric acid in one hundred of water. Provide pure 
water and uninfected food. 

By careful manipulation the worms may often be removed 
from the trachea and the chicken radically cured in that way. 
To accomplish this either a feather or a long hair from the 
horse's tail may be used. If a feather is selected it is stripped 
of the web except near the tip. This may be used dry or it 
may be moistened with coal oil or oil of turpentine. If a horse- 
hair is to be used it is folded and the two ends twisted to- 
gether so as to leave a small ' loop at the folded extremity. 
To extract the worms the chicken's mouth is forced open with 
the fingers of the left hand, and, when the glottis opens for 
breathing, the feather or hair is trust into the opening and 
downward into the trachea. It is then turned or twisted 
around several times and withdrawn, when one or more 
worms may be found adhering to it, or in other cases are 
coughed up, having been loosened by the feather or hair. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 73 

These worms should all be burned as they are capable of 
spreading the infection. Great care should be used in these 
manipulations as the larynx and trachea are very tender and 
sensitive and are liable to serious injury from a broken or 
rough feather; or the bird may be suffocated bv obstructing 
the breathing for too long a time. 

Internal treatment is highly recommended by some 
authorities. Megnin had excellent results in treating affected 
pheasants with garlic. He made a mixture consisting of 
hard-boiled eggs, boiled beef's heart, the crumbs of stale 
bread and salad. These ingredients were chopped, pounded 
and thoroughly mixed &o as to make a paste. To this paste 
was added pounded garlic in the proportion of one bulb to ten 
pheasants each day, the garlic being thoroughly distributed 
through the paste. This mixture was greatly relished by the 
birds. Others who tried this remedy found that the birds 
refused to eat it, but that they would %at garlic in the form 
of a salad. Megnin also recommends assafoetida, seven and one- 
half grains daily to a pheasant, used as a powder combined 
with an equal quantity of yellow pulverized gentian and mixed 
with the paste that was fed to the birds. He asserts that this 
treatment succeeded completely within a few days. 

Some have obtained satisfactory results by administering 
camphor m the form of pills, the dose being one-half to one 
grain twice a day. Others have succeeded with sulphur 
giving one to three grains at a dose. 

Those engaged in raising birds should depend rather ort 
prevention than cure. The value of a three-weeks-old chicken 
IS not sufficient to justify a great expenditure of time in its 
treatment. The effort should be made to place the young 
birds on uninfected ground, or the runs should be kept thor- 
oughly disinfected. On the first appearance of the disease 
remove and isolate the affected birds and take the necessary 
precautions to secure the destruction of all the parasites they 
contain. By such measures the propagation of the worm will 
be prevented and the extension of the disease will be avoided'. 

PIP. 

Inflammation of the mouth is a rare rather than a com- 
mon disease. The symptoms consist of the drying of the 
membrane of the mouth and particularly of that covering the 
tongue. A hard opaque deposit accumulates along the edges 
and upon the under surface of the tongue, and may firmly 
attach this organ to the adjacent parts. The dried epidermis may 
partly separate from the sensitive tissues, and form a hard 
shell which remains attached to the free extremity of the 



74 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

tongue, causing more or less painful constriction and inter- 
fering with the movements of the important organ. 

This disease arises from any form of local irritation or 
injury which is sufficiently serious or long continued to 
set up inHammatory action. In the majority of cases it is 
probably caused by micro-organisms of feeble virulence which 
are able to make some headway when the digestive organs 
are deranged and the circulation of the parts somewhat dis- 
turbed. In most other cases, there is nothing more than a 
drying or desiccation of the mucous membrane caused by 
breathing through the mouth on account of obstruction of the 
air passages, or disease of the lungs afifecting the respiration. 

The common treatment which consists of tearing the 
dried epithelium oflf the tongue, before it has entirely sepa- 
rated by the natural process, is cruel and injurious, often 
leading to the death of the bird. In case of simple drying of 
the morth, it is sufficient to moisten the tongue with a few 
drops of a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water. In 
case there is redness of the membrane, or if the epithelium is 
beginning to separate, or if a deposit has formed, add twenty 
grains of chlorate of potash to each ounce of this mixture. 
An excellent remedy for such cases is made by dissolving 
fifteen grains of boric acid in an ounce of water. Both of 
these solutions are harmless and may be freely and frequently 
applied. When the epithelium is separating, it should be kept 
moistened with the glycerine mixture and its detachment 
may be somewhat facilitated by loosening it with a pin or the 
point of a penknife, but great care should be exercised, the 
sensitive tissues should not be touched anid no blood should 
be drawn. If properly treated the disease remains localized 
and is of slight importance. The exaggerated idea prevalent 
as to the dangerous character of "pip," probably arises from 
its being associated with serious diseases of the respiratory 
organs and from the fatal result which follow the forcible 
tearing away of the dried epithelium, leaving a bleeding and 
ulcerating surface. Should the drying and irritation of the 
membrane be the result of breathing through the mouth on 
account of disease of the air passages or lungs, the latter 
must, of course, be treated to effect a permanent cure. 

CROP BOUND. 

The affected bird has difficulty in swallowing or entirely 
loses its appetite. The crop is greatly distended, the swell- 
ing sometimes being of remarkable size. It is hard and more 
or less firm anid unyielding on pressure. vSometimes a fer- 
menting or decomposing liquid escapes from the mouth and 
nostrils. The bird is slow in its movements, dull, stupid, and 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 76 

sleepy. The comb is pale, the beak is kept open on account of 
the pressure on the trachea, and the feathers appear rough. 
In some mstances sharp-pointed nails or other pointed objects 
are found to have penetrated the crop and skin and remain 
projecting from the puncture. 

The pressure of the distented crop upon the wind-pipe 
and blood-vessels may cause asphyxia, the crop may become 
aftected with gangrene, or it may even be ruptured. As 
much as three-fourths of a pound of moist or even sprouted 
gram has been removed from the crop in these severe cases. 

The treatment of aflfected birds should be prompt and 
energetic to avoid the fatal complications which have been 
mentioned. Pour a small quantity of sweet oil into the 
mouth and cause the bird to swallow it. Then manipuhte 
that portion of the crop nearest the throat by careful 
pressure and squeezing between the thumb and finger in such 
a manner as to break up the contents of the crop and 
force it towards the mouth in small portions. Suspend the 
bird head downwards from time to time and press the loos- 
ened particles of food towards the head so that they will 
escape from the mouth. With care and patience the crop may 
be entirely emptied in this way. if oil is administered as often 
as IS required to soften the contents. After this is accom- 
plished give two grains of baking soda in water, keep without 
food for a day, and then feed sparingly on soft diet until re- 
covery is complete. 

In case the crop contains hard-pointed objects which cannot ■ 
safely be manipulated in the manner just described, or if such at- 
tempts at removing the inipacted matter are for any reason unsuc- 
cessful, the crop must be cut into with a knife and the contents 
removed through the artificial opening. In order to perform 
this operation properlv, the feathers should be clipped ofif with a 
pair of scissors over the most prominent part of the crop so that 
they will not obstruct the cutting or get in the operator's w^y when 
he is removing the contents of the crop. Now take a sharp, cleart 
knife and make an incision through the skin and the wall of the 
crop imtil the food in this organ is reached. This opening should 
not be much over an inch in length, and should be rather high on 
the crop so that the food will not have the same tendency to^ress 
it open when healing as it would at the most dependant part The 
contents of the crop should be carefully removed with the finger 
or with the handle of a spoon or some other convenient obj'^ct 
Ihe wound may now be washed with a solution of carbolic ncid 
hve drops to one ounce of water, and closed with stitches. White 
silk IS the best material to use for this ouroose. Some stitch the 
walls of the crop first, allowing the ends of the silk to hang out- 
side, so that after five or six days the thread mav be cut and the 



76 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

:\ ' 

stitches pulled out. The skin is drawn together in the same way. 
'Other operators prefer to stitch through the skin and the walls 
of the crop at the same time, drawing them carefully and neatly 
together. In five or six days if the union of the parts has taken 
■place, cut the stitches and carefully draw them out so that they 
will not interfere with perfect heahng. After the operation has 
been performed, give no food and only a small quantity of water, 
to which a grain or two of salicylic acid has been added, during 
the first twenty-four hours. Then feed with milk for two or three 
days, gradually changing to mush or more solid food^ and finally 
return to the ordinary diet when the wound heals. 
,! With fowls, this operation is not serious, if performed in 
time, the wound readily heals and the birds are soon well. With 
pigeons, it is usually fatal on account of the sensitive and vascular 
condition of the mucous membrane of the affected part. 

CONSTIPATION OR INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION. 

Birds which are affected with serious constipation or intes- 
tinal obstruction become dull, lose their appetite, stand with 
arched back, roughened plumage, walk with more or less diffi- 
culty, are at times uneasy and make frequent attempts to expel 
the excrement. By careful examination, the hard impacted in- 
testine may often be felt through the abdominal walls or the 
obstruction of the cloaca may be discovered. Frequently, the 
dried mass of excrement may be seen adhering to the feathers 
and blocking the external opening of the bowels. 

When the obstruction has commenced and is maintained 
by accumulations of the excrement upon the feathers, the 
first step is to get rid of this obstructing mass. It should 
be soaked in warm water until softened, and then by clipping 
some of the feathers about the vent it is easily removed. If 
the cloaca is filled with a hardened mass, this too should be soft- 
ened with warm water or with olive oil, and carefully manipu- 
lated until it can be pressed out or otherwise removed without 
injury to the bird. Oil may be inserted around such an obstruc- 
tion with a small syringe, or, in the absence of a syringe, an oil 
can, such as is used for oiling machinery, answers the purpose 
Very well. After the oil has been applied freely, it may be 
necessary to wait an hour or two for it to penetrate and soften 
the obstruction before much progress can be made towards its 
removal by manipulation. The handle of a small spoon or a 
similar blunt instrument is often of assistance in cleaning out the 
contents of the cloaca. 

■ When there is serious constipation or when obstruction has 
taken place high up in the intestine where it can not be reached 
by external applications, laxative or purgative medicines are 
necessary. The most successful of these are Epsom salts twenty 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 77 

to thirty grains dissolved in a tablespoonful of water ; castor oil 
one to two teaspoonfuls ; or calomel one to two grains made into 
pills with butter or lard. The constipation should also be cor- 
rected as far as possible by regulating the rations of the birds. 
Give soft, watery mashes, green feed and bran until the bowels 
appear to be once more in a normal condition. The skillful 
feeder will generally prevent both diarrhea and constipation by 
careful attention to the diet. 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

The liver is one of the largest and most important organs 
in the bird's body. It not only prepares the bile, which is one 
of the principal digestive liquids, but it assists in some of the 
most necessary chemical changes which occur in the blood. 
This organ contains numerous blood vessels through which 
passes a very large quantity of blood, and it is particularly sub- 
ject to the attacks of various kinds of parasites. Most of these 
parasites probably find their way to the liver through the blood 
channels, lodge in the minute capillary vessels, and begin their 
multiplication and disease-producing action. 

CONGESTION OF THE LIVER. 

The liver of fowls is often found in a congested condition 
as the result of lack of exercise combined with over-feeding; 
also from the birds taking tainted or moldy food or poisonous 
substances of various kinds into their digestive organs ; from 
the effects of infectious diseases, particularly cholera ; and from 
obstruction to the circulation of blood by disease of the heart 
or lungs. It is often seen in birds which are in plethoric condi- 
tion or very fat. 

The symptoms are obscure and it is difficult to make a 
diagnosis during the life of the affected bird. The post-mortem 
examination reveals a greatly enlarged liver engorged with blood, 
tender and easily torn or crushed. 

If the condition is suspected in time for treatment give 
sulphate of magnesium or sulphate of sodium in a purgative 
dose (20 grains to a dram) and follow with sulphate of mag- 
nesium 10 grains, bicarbonate of sodium 2 grains, repeated daily 
for a week. 

The disease should be prevented by proper feeding, regu- 
lar exercise, and protection from parasites and infectious diseases. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER, HEPATITIS. 

This disease is due to the causes enumerated as producing 
congestion of the liver and is a different and more advanced 
stage of the same process. 



78 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

The symptoms are loss of appetite, sluggishness, tenderness 
over the abdomen and sometimes a yellowish color or jaundice 
of the skin. 

The treatment of birds so affected is not profitable unless 
they are very valuable for breeding or exhibition purposes. It 
is well to begin with i^ to i grain of calomel, followed with 20 
grains of Epsom salts and 2 grains of bicarbonate of soda after 
twelve hours. Naphthol or benzonaphthol may be given twice 
a day in i grain doses to disinfect the intestinal canal. If the 
diarrhea is excessive and weakens the bird, treat as recommended' 
for that disease. 

When marked improvement is shown, give green food, 
tonics, and raw beef, and allow the bird free exercise in the open 
air. 

DIFFICULT LAYING, EGG BOUND, OBSTRUCTION OF THE 

OVIDUCT. 

Laying may become difficult because of irritation of the 
lower part of the oviduct arresting the secretion of mucus and 
causing the mucous membrane to become dry and lacking in its 
normal lubrication. The same trouble results from birds being 
too fat or from the eggs being too large, and is aggravated by 
constipation. If the cause is sufficiently pronounced in its action, 
the affected bird may be unable to expel the &gg ; this is arrested 
in the passage where it sets up inflammation and leads to strain- 
ing and possibly to prolapsus of the oviduct. 

Symptoms. — When fowls are egg bound they at first go 
frequently to the nest, making efforts to lay, but are unable to 
accomplish this function. They are restless and evidently in 
more or less distress. Later they become dull, with rough 
plumage and are indisposed to move. On examining the bird 
by pressure of the finger about the vent, the egg can be distin- 
guished as a hard body in the posterior part of the abdominal 
cavity. In case of prolapsus, the everted oviduct may be easily 
seen. 

Treatment. — In the early stages when the irritation is 
slight, it is sufficient to inject a small quantity of olive oil and 
gently manipulate the parts. Afterwards, give cooling food, 
and, if hens are too fat, reduce the ration. In case the expulsion 
of the egg can not be obtained by the injection of oil, immerse 
the vent and lower part of the body in water, as warm as can 
be used without injury, and hold it there half an hour or more 
until the parts are relaxed. Then inject oil and endeavor to 
assist the bird by carefid pressure and manipulation, or by dila- 
tion of the passage. Fluid extract of ergot is useful in these 
cases and may be given in five-drop doses three times a day. In. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 79 

some cases it is necessary to puncture the egg, allow the con- 
tents to escape, crush the shell and remove it in pieces. 

CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, VERTIGO. ^IIZ'.' 

Congestion of the brain is a disease quite frequently seen 
with poultry. It may occur in fat and plethoric birds by fright 
or indigestion. It is frequently associated with irritation of the 
intestines by parasitic worms. It is seen particularly in male 
birds during the breeding season and in chickens exposed to the 
hot rays of the sun. It may, also, occur as the result of blows 
upon the head and as a complication with infectious diseases 
such as cholera. 

The symptoms are giddiness which leads the bird to throw 
its head upwards and backwards or to bend the neck to one side. 
The gait is staggering and uncertain, the bird walking back- 
wards, sidewise or in a circle. Sometimes irregular and un- 
usual movements are made, or the bird falls to the ground 
fluttering and making convulsive movements with the legs, or 
may lie for some minutes powerless to move. In some cases 
there are epileptiform spasms which may often be stopped by 
a touch, in other cases there is great stupefaction and drowsiness. 

As treatment apply cold water or ice to the head and hold 
it in position until the head is thoroughly cooled. Give internally 
30 grains of Epsom salts, or one and one-half grains of calomel, 
or two teaspoon fuls of castor oil. Keep the afifected bird in a 
quiet, cool, and shady place. If there is not entire recovery 
under this treatment, try bromide of potassium one to five grains 
three times a day dissolved in a tablespoon ful of water. In case 
of intestinal parasites endeavor to dislodge these with appro- 
priate remedies. 

HEMORRHAGE OF THE BRAIN, APOPLEXY. 

Apoplexy is the result of a rupture of one of the blood ves- 
sels of the brain and pressure from the escaped blood. Such 
accidents are attributed to stimulating food, to overfeeding 
and mechanical injuries, to violent exertion and to straining in 
laying eggs (hens being sometimes being found dead on the 
nest from this cause). 

There are no premonitory symptoms in this disease. 
The bird is attacked suddenly, falls nearly or quite insensible, 
or dies upon the nest. 

In most cases treatment is impossible as the bird dies be- 
fore it can be administered. In mild attacks the treatment 
should be the same as recommended for congestion of the 
brain. As preventative measures, regulate the rations and 
give plenty of exercise. 



80 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

CHICKEN POX. 

This disease chiefly affects the head of poultry, and ap- 
pears as an eruption of round or oblong, yellow nodules, 
varying from the size of a pinhead to that of a pea or a grain 
of corn, The largest are found about the beak, the nostrils, 
the eyelids, and upon other parts of the head that are free 
from feathers. They form rough, yellow masses upon the 
comb and wattles. The eruption may be localized where it 
first appears or it may extend to the feathered portions of the 
body. 

With pigeons the eruption has a tendency to become 
diffuse and invades the neck, the lower surface of the body, 
the inner sides of the legs and wings, the rump and even the 
upper surface of the wings. 

The nodules, which at first' have somewhat the appear- 
ance of the warts often seen upon the hands of children, reach 
their full development in from five to ten days. They soon 
show a central depression, an opening forms, or the summit 
is rubbed off accidentally or by the bird's beak, after which 
there is a discharge of watery, or, later, of a thick, yellowish 
matter which soils the feathers arud which if abundant may 
become foul and disagreeable. 

When the disease is localized, the general health of the 
bird does not appear to suffer, and spontaneous recovery may 
occur. In this case the nodules dry up and form a crust and 
fall off either as a whole or in particles. Generally, however, 
the disease extends, the birds become emaciated, the plumage 
is rough, the strength is exhausted, and death results. In 
the most violent cases, especially with pigeons, the eruption 
extends to the mucous membranes of the mouth and nostrils, 
the resulting inflammation takes on a diphtheritic form, and 
early death follows. 

The prophylactic or preventive treatment consists in ex- 
cluding affected birds from the premises ; in keeping the 
poultry-houses and pigeon-cotes clean and dry ; and in hatch- 
ing the chickens early on farms where the disease is trouble- 
some. Disinfection by whitewashing the houses, or spray- 
ing them thoroughly with a solution containing three to five 
per cent, of carbolic acid and then opening them for the dry- 
ing action of the sun and air is a valuable means of guarding 
against an outbreak of the disease. 

The curative treatment consists of the local application 
of those remedies which have been found efficient for the 
destruction of the parasitic blastomycetes. Some person's 
have been successful by feeding sulphur, and at the same time, 
applying sulphur ointment twice a day to the nodules. Others 
have cured the affected birds by applying carbolic ointment, 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 81 

or glycerine containing two per cent, of carbolic acid. An- 
other treatment is to bathe the affected parts with soap and 
water in order to soften the crusts, and afterwards apply a 
solution of sulphate of copper (bluestone), a dram to y2 pint 
of water. Sulphate of copper has been found destructive to 
many kinds of fungi, and, therefore, is promising in this dis- 
ease. Tincture of iodine has also been recommended, both 
by itself and mixed with ten per cent, of carbolic acid, but 
this remedy is rather severe and should only be applied spar- 
ingly and after the others mentioned have proved ineffectual. 

This local treatment should be accompanied by cleaning 
and disinfection of the houses, and, if possible, changing to 
new, uninfected runs. The feeding troughs and drinking ves- 
sels should be daily washed with boiling water. 

When the disease first appears in a flock the affected 
birds should be at once isolated and treated, and the effort 
made by disinfection to prevent the further extension of the 
contagion. 

RHEUMATISM AND GOUT. 

All species of fowls and especially chickens are subject to 
rheumatic aft"ections. The trouble begins with spasmodic 
jerking of the legs, and is followed by lameness, indisposition 
to remain standing, painful joints and refusal to walk. The 
feet and next joint above (tibio-tarsal), are most fre- 
quently aft'ected. After a time small swellings appear on the 
sides of these joints, which are at first soft, and somewhat 
painful, but gradually become more firm until they feel like 
enlargements of the bones. Sometimes" these swellings ulcer- 
ate, in which case the sores appear red, irregular in outline and 
bleeding. A yellowish, flaky or stringy pus partly fills the 
sore and when this is removed the naked tendons, bones or 
joints may sometimes be seen. The cavities of the joints are 
opened to the air, fistulas develop and death of the bone oc- 
curs. The disease is chronic in its development and the ad- 
vanced stages are, therefore, generally seen in old birds. The 
affected birds may live a long time even when the disease has 
progressed to the extreme degree described above. They 
lose flesh, however, their plumage becomes rough and dull, 
diarrhea sets in and death occurs from exhaustion. 

Treatment. — As rheumatism is usually caused by exposure 
to cold and dampness, the development of the disease in one 
or more fowls of a flock should be a warning to improve the 
ventilation and drainage of the houses. The buildings where 
the fowls live and roost should be thoroughly dry, free from 
draughts, yet well ventilated, and not too cold. With proper 
attention to these sanitary arrangements the disease should 



82 C.UJI'ORMA POULTRY CULTURE. 

be prevented. Affected birds should have frequent change of 
ration with plenty of green feed. Begin treatment w^ith a dose 
of Epsom salts, 20 to 30 grains. The following day add 30 
to 40 grains bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) to the quart 
of drinking water, and give 2 to 3 grains of salicylic acid twice 
a day. Apply camphorated or carbolic ointment to the 
affected joints. The birds which are seriously affected would 
be better killed than treated, and the main reliance must be 
under any circmstances in prevention by securing proper sani- 
tary conditions. 

CORNS. 

The condition known as corns is an inflammation and 
thickening of the skin on the under surface of the foot, the 
result of prolonged pressure, irritation, and bruises. Corns 
are generally caused by too small or too narrow perches 
which compel the fowls to grasp them tightly in order to main- 
tain their position. This firm grasp continued night after 
night affects the circulation of the part of the foot that comes 
in closest contact with the perch. More or less irritation and 
inflammation is set up, which leads to multiplication and en- 
largement of the cells of the part, and results in swelling and 
thickening of the skin. A similar condition may be caused 
by heavy birds flying from their perches and alighting upon 
a stony surface or hard floor. 

Suitable precautions should be adopted to prevent the 
development of corns. The perches should be broad and 
flat, they should be of a proper height, and the floor upon 
which the birds alight should be covered with earth or sand 
so the feet will not be bruised. The affected birds should be 
treated by paring off the thickened epidermis, without caus- 
ing bleeding, and applying boric acid ointment (boric acid i 
part, vaseline 5 parts), or painting the part with tincture of 
iodine. 

BUMBLEFOOT. 

This is an aggravation of the condition known as corns. 
It is seen in those cases where the irritation and bruising is 
most severe or prolonged. The affected part is hot, painful, 
and more or less swollen. Sometimes an abscess has formed, 
or in older cases this abscess may have broken and left a 
suppurating sore. In the most severe cases the joints may be 
inflamed, and may even be penetrated by the pus channels 
which have formed from the abscesses. 

As treatment employ the preventive measures already 
mentioned for corns and other injuries to the feet., Soak the 
feet in warm water for a half hour twice a day and poultice 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 8? 

until the inflammation is reduced. If an abscess in the sole 
is indicated by a soft, fluctuating swelling of the part, it should 
be opened with a sharp knife. After the poulticing is com- 
pleted apply boric acid ointment and protect the feet with a 
piece of cotton cloth. If the joints have become afifected, 
and particularly if these communicate with the pus channels 
and are the seat of suppuration, the bird should be killed, as 
its treatment would be unprofitable, an?! its entire recovery 
would not be probable. 

SCALEY LEG. 

Scaly legs is a form of scabies or mange caused by the 
mite known as the Sarcoptes mntans. It is a strictly con- 
tagious disease although it does not spread rapidly from bird 
to bird, and there may be only a few noticeably aft'ected 
birds in the flock. The Asiatic breeds are most susceptible 
to it, and many birds, even of these breeds, resist the attacks 
of the mites, and never show any symptoms. It attacks quite 
a variety of birds — fowls, turkeys, pheasants, partridges and 
cage birds, but has not been observed in ducks and geese. In 
the production of scaly legs, the Sarcoptes mutans penetrates 
beneath the epidermic scales on the upper surface of the foot 
and the front of the shank, and by burrowing there sets up 
an irritation which leads to a multiplication of the cells of 
the part, and an exudation of scrum. It is by the union of 
these two products that the white, powdery crust is formed, 
which raises the epidermic scales from their normal position. 

When this disease is first observed in a flock, prompt 
and energetic measures should be adopted to eradicate it. 
The affected birds should be isolated to prevent the spread of 
the contagion. The houses which they have occupied should 
be thoroughly cleaned. The roosts and other woodwork- 
should be scalded with boiling water or covered with car- 
bolated lime wash. The treatment of the affected birds is 
the same as with scabies of the body, with the single ex- 
ception that the loosened scales must be removed in order to 
bring the remedy in contact with the mites. In order to 
accomplish this the legs should be soaked for a suffcient time 
in warm water to which some soap has been added. When 
thoroughly softened the loose scales may be removed with- 
out causing bleeding. Or, a coating of soft soap may be 
applied to the affected parts, leaving it to act for from 
twelve to twenty-four hours. The legs are then placed in 
warm water and the scales softened and removed by gentle 
rubbing and friction. After this has been done the legs are 
dried and treated with a good coat of Helmerich's omtmenr. 
Creolin ointment (i to lo), Carbolic ointment (i to lo), or bal- 



M CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

sam of Peru. The later may be applied daily for three or tour 
days, and is better adapted than the other remedies to the treat- 
ment of young or delicate birds, since it is equally efficacious in 
destroying- the mites and has little if any injurious effect upon the 
birds. The disease is not a difficult one to cure, if the preliminary 
treatment is thorough and the loose scales and crusts are all re- 
moved. 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

The symptoms which are observed in the tuberculosis of 
birds are common to other diseases, and, therefore, while they 
are valuable as an indication of the nature of the disease, they 
are not sufficient to permit an absolutely reliable conclusion 
to be reached. There is rapid and progressive emaciation, 
made apparent by the loss of weight, wasting of the muscles, 
and prominence of the bones. The comb becomes pale, the 
bird loses its bright, animated expression, and in the later 
stages becomes quite dull and sleepy. At this time a persist- 
ent diarrhea appears, which increases in intensity until the 
subject dies from exhaustion. 

The symptoms just enumerated are those observed when 
the disease is confined to the internal organs. It often- affects 
the joints and bones, when it is revealed by lameness, swell- 
ings of the joints and deformities of the bones. Occasionally 
ulcers form, in the pus of which many bacilli are found. 

The tuberculosis of birds, like that of mankind, is caused 
by a bacillus. The bacillus of birds in a general way resembles 
that of man, but is larger, more vigorous and hardy, and 
grows better outside of the body. The disease is strictly con- 
tagious, and usually appears in a flock as a consequence of 
bringing in new birds. That is, it results from contagion 
carried by birds from other diseased flocks. 

The eradication of tuberculosis in birds from an infected 
premises can only be attempted with a fair prospect of suc- 
cess when all the birds are sacrificed. Any individuals that 
are preserved are liable to have ulcerations of the intestines, 
from which the bacilli are constantly distributed. There 
should, consequently, be no attempt to save any birds from an 
infected flock. 

When the birds are all killed and disposed of by burning 
or deeply burying, the premises should be carefully disin- 
fected. The manure should be carefully scraped and swept 
together and saturated with a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic 
acid or mixed with lime. The floors and woodwork of the 
houses should be washed with boiling water or with a hot 
solution of carbolic acid. The feeding troughs, drinking 
vessels and nests should be treated in the same manner. Any 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



85 



yards used for penning birds should be sprinkled with the 
carbolic acid solution. 

After the cleaning and disinfection is accomplished the 
premises should be opened to the sun and air for a month if 
possible before new birds are introduced. It is then a good 
plan to cover the walls and roosts with lime wash, to which 4 
ounces of crude carbolic acid to the gallon has been added, 
and ventilate a few days longer before the houses are used. 
Those who scrupulously enforce these measures may be 
reasonably certain that the contagion will be destroyed and 
that the new flock may be safely introduced. 

INJURIOUS HABITS OR VICES. 

EGG EATING. 

One of the most troublesome and injurious of the acquired 
habits of poultrv is egg eating. Undoubtedly the habit begins 
in most cases by the accidental breaking of an egg m the nest, 
but it rapidlv spreads among the flock until a large proportion 
of the eggs laid are purposely broken and eaten by the hens. 
The heavy breeds of fowls are 'most subject to this habit because 
they more frequently break their eggs by stepping upon them 
than do lighter birds. When an egg is broken it is too temptmg 
a morsel to be left in the nest. The hen not only eats it, but 
often carries large pieces of the shell about the house or grounds, 
pursued bv other members of the flock, each of which wants a 
portion. In this manner a number of individuals soon learn 
how appetizing are eggs and egg shells, and each in turn becomes 
a teacher of others. 

It is plain that whatever conditions contribute to the break- 
ing of eggs in the nest may be considered as causes of the habit. 
Thin-shell eggs are easily broken, and, hence, a deficiency of 
shell-forming constituents in the ration may be a cause. In 
other cases an egg may be broken for want of sufficient straw 
in the nest to protect it from direct contact with the wood. 

To guard against the formation of the egg-eating habit 
the fowls should have plenty of lime, oyster-shells, bone, or 
similar substances to ensure a firm shell upon the eggs. The 
nests should be properly supplied with straw, and artificial nest 
eggs should be used. In this way the danger of breaking eggs 
is' reduced to a minimum. It is, also, well to have the nests 
rather dark so that if an egg is accidently broken the hen will 
not discover it. 

When the habit has been once acquired, these precautions 
are not always sufficient, and it may be necessary to construct 
the nests so that the eggs will roll beyond the reach of the hen. 
Some people place artificial eggs in the nest and about the houses 
so that the hens mav peck at them and get the idea that they 
are no longer able to break egg shells. Others blow out the 



86 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

contents of a few eggs through a small hole in the shell and fill 
the space with a paste consisting largely of mustard, capsictmi, 
aloes or other disagreeable compounds and leave these where 
the hens will find them. 

Under any circumstances, it is best to remove the egg eaters 
from the remainder of the flock, and, unless they are very val- 
uable, to kill them for the table. If they are too valuable for 
this treatment, then dark nests or those in which the egg rolls 
into a safe receptacle are the only resources. 

FEATHER EATING, FEATHER PULLING. 

Fowls often acquire the habit of pulling out and eating 
their own feathers or the feathers of other members of the flock. 
This vice is acquired most frequently in the Spring or at moulting 
time. The first indication that the birds are pulling feathers 
is the loss of plumage, bareness and redness of the skin over the 
posterior part of the back. Sometimes ,the skin has become 
abraded by repeated pecking and sores result. If the birds 
are watched carefully, they will be seen to catch one or more 
feathers in their beaks, tear them out and swallow them. They 
are apparently most fond of the young, growing feathers, the 
quills of which are filled with blood. 

Various causes have been assigned for this habit, the most 
probable being improper rations and insufficient exercise or 
idleness. In some instances, it may originate from irritation 
of the skin caused by animal parasites. In general, it may be 
said that anything which produces an abnormal appetite pre- 
disposes to feather eating. 

As preventive measures, the birds should be given a free 
run or they should at least be made to scratch for a large part 
of their food. This exercise improves their digestion and gives 
them something to occupy their time. As in some cases, the 
habit is due to insufficient animal matter in the ration or to 
feeding too long on a single kind of grain, particularly corn, one 
of the first measures adopted should be a well balanced ration 
containing skim milk, meat, bone, vegetables or green feed and 
frecjuently varied. 

The skin and feathers should be carefully examined for lice 
and mites, and if these are found the remedies recommended 
for such parasites should be appHed. As lack of grit may be 
the cause of indigestion, this essential element of the ration 
should receive attention, and it is well to give 6 or 8 grains daily 
of a mixture of equal parts of powdered gentian root and ginger. 
The birds should also be examined for intestinal parasites. 



Starting a Poultry Ranch on Small Capital. 

One of the questions asked by visitors on a poultry ranch is, 
•• How much does it cost to start a Uttle chicken business and how 
can I get started in my back yard on a fifty-foot lot?" When 
we tell you that we have successfully hatched and raised several 
thousand on an acre, and there are only four or five city lots to 
the acre you can see that considerable can be accomplished 
in your 'back yard. Begin by engaging- from some reliable 
breeder, 50, 100, 200, 300 or 500 eggs. We say "Begin by en- 
gaging eggs," because you will have to place your order and wait 
your turn for them. Then order your incubator, set up and tested 
bv the seller. Next you will require brooders. A couple of days 
in the incubator after the hatch is best for little chicks before 
transferring them into the brooder. The little birds can be kept 
in the outdoor brooder about a month, three weeks with heat and 
one without heat; then they are ready for the pens in which 
cold brooders should be provided under shelter. Our cold 
brooders are home-made affairs, nothing more than boxes five feet 
long, two wide and two feet high, with movable floor made of 
laths' to form little perches. The front is open except for a burlap 
curtain, which we throw back day times and drops down nights. 
The little birds will roost in these cold brooders until they 
get a couple of months old. when they will begin roosting on 
top of them and on regular roosts, if provided. Now, regard- 
ing expense ; thus far your eggs have cost you from $5 to $30 
a hundred, according to quality, your incubator $10 to $42, 
according to size and make. (3ut-door brooders co.st $12 to 
$16 each per lOO-chick size. To make a calculation of cost, 
we will figure on the large incubator and medium-priced eggs, 
and it comes out as follows: Three hundred and sixty eggs 
at say $15 a hundred, $54, 360-egg incubator, $42; three out- 
door brooders at $16, $48; oil for incubator 22 days at i>4 cents 
a day, 33 cents; oil for three brooders, 22 days at i^^ cents. 
99 cents; 20 pounds chick feed at 5 cents, $1. Total. $146.32- 
Three weeks for birds to hatch, and three weeks in hot out- 
door brooder, and you should have about 270 strong birds, 
three weeks old. This is a conservative estimate, allowing 
for a loss of 25 per cent, which is a safe calculation if careful 
attention is given! and eggs purchased on a 100 per cent, 
guarantee. At this stage you are well equipped for business, 
except your pens and roost-houses, which will be needed when 



88 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

your birds are about three months old. We will give you 
a tested working plan for a little home place such as you see 
on every street in Los Angeles. Say your lot is 50x150, with 
the back yard fenced im Your contemplated pens are to be 
eight feet wide and forty feet long, and you' may want to 
add a number of similar pens from time to time, as your flock 
increases. With this thought in view you build your first pen 
lengthwise against the back fence of your lot, which is 50 feet. 
Your pen being only 40 feet, leaves 10 feet in front of the pen 
to form an alley. When other pens are needed they can be 
added in the same manner, only requiring front and near 
side as back and far. side is already there. In the back 
end of pen you build a little house 8x8 feet of cheap, 
second-hand or resawed lumber. The back and two sides 
of said little house should be lined with paper three or 
four feet up from the ground to insure against draughts. 
The front should be two burlap doors about 4x8 each. 
The best roof is galvanized corrugated iron, and cheapest in 
the long run, but shingles, shakes or tar paper can be used. 
The cost of such a pen and house is as follows : Four posts, 
3x4x8, set 10 feet apart on long side, and one post extra to 
hang front gate on, cost $1. A solid piece of lumber should 
be nailed along the ground from post to post, and can be of 
any desired dimensions, but we use a ixio, cost 80 cents. The 
lumber in the house amounts to but Little, as the' back fence 
forms the far wall and the side fence the rear wall, conse- 
quently you have only the rear wall and the two burlap doors 
to build. The wall is 6x8 feet, 48 square feet of lumber at 
25^ cents, or $1.20. The burlap door frames can be made 
of 1x3 lumber covered with two-inch wire netting and barley 
sacks, all material costing less than $1. Then you want 48 
running feet of 2-inch wire netting 5 feet high, to run around 
the near side and front of pen ; at half a cent a square foot 
would be $1.20. Roof of galvanized iron 9x9, or 81 square feet, 
at 4 cents, or $3.24. One hundred running feet of 2x3 for stud- 
ding and roof timbers will be more than enough, and cost 
$1.25. Labor for such a house and pen: costs me about $2, 
but make sure by calling it $4, and if you allow, say, $1.31 for 
nails, hinges and extras, you have a safe estimate of $15 for 
each house and pen. You should select the best pullets from 
your six-months-old birds and sell the rest for market stock, 
possibly getting a better price for a number of the cockerels, 
if they are suitable for breeding. With this money purchase 
the necessary number of mature breeding cocks, and when 
your pullets are fully matured and laying well, mate up your 
pens. Of course you will, before mating time, have finished 
up the number you will need. Your market stock should 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 89 

sell for 15 to 35 cents a pound, live weight. A good breeding 
cockerel will sell jFrom $5 to $50, but of course the $50 birds 
are few and far between, and one usually has to breed for 
special points to get that price. Now the egg orders should 
be looked for, and a small "ad" in a good poultry magazine 
and a local newspaper will attend to that matter. You can 
probably run many hatches the second year, as there is great 
demand for newly hatched chicks, and many people raise very 
few of the number hatched, sellinig most of them, and make 
a very good thing of the baby chicks. We know of one 
woman who hatched 1800, saved 700 for her next year's breed- 
ing yards, and sold iioo at good prices.. Of course a back- 
yard chicken plant is but an introduction to acreage property 
and another prosperous chicken ranch. 




A Beginner's Experience. 



There are numerous ways of making the poultry business 
pay handsomely, in fact it is getting to a point where one 
must specialize. One person is peculiarly adapted to mating 
and breedinig for points, another is not at all interested in that 
line and will make a successful egg rancher or run to the 
various kinds of market poultry, broilers or capons, etc. I 
have in mind a little woman whose talents ran in the first- 
named direction. She purchased a peni of six laying hens 
and a cock of popular variety, a very fine pen. She lived in 
a little cottage on a 50x150 foot lot. One thing which she 
prized next to her birds was a thickly-sown white clover lawn 
15x50 in the front and 10x50 on the side. Her cottage and a 
little back porch occupied a space 40x60, leaving a space 75x50 
feet in the back for her yards. She made a good roosting 
shed out of a piano box, nest boxes out of soap and tomato 
boxes which her grocer brought her. She made plenty of 
shade by stretching gunny sacking over four posts driven into 
the ground and with a couple of fruit trees kept her birds com- 
fortable and their plumage richer by keeping" the direct rays 
of the sun ofif. I know most of you are thinking, "Why didn't 
she have better roosting quarters and nests," but this was 
entirely a pin money affair to start. She filled small cigar 
boxes with grit, shell, charcoal, and beef scraps and nailed 
them to the fence so the birds could easily reach them with 
the bill and not the feet. They were always supplied with 
plenty of fresh, cool water, green clover clippings, and kept 
free from lice, and being grateful hens they began to pay 
her for their comforts with plenty of fine-shelled, fertile eggs 
which any good hen will do if given the necessary ingredients 
for their manufacture. Our friend read all the poultry litera- 
ture she could beg or borrow and took two good poultry 
magazines. In ten days she had two settings of thirty eggs 
which she set under two cheap mothers which she purchased 
from a neighbor. 

Her birds were set on the ground dampened and hollowed 
out to a nice, round nest lined with hay. A generous handful 
of lice powder was sprinkled in the nest and the aforesaid 
motherly hens were carefully deposited on a few china eggs. 
After they had demonstrated their desire to make a stay of 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 91 

it the china eggs were exchanged for the fine eggs and they 
settled down to business. 

A fence of chicken wire separated them from the other 
birds and two nice little individual pens were fixed up with 
a dust bath in one corner, fresh water, a dish of corn and 
wheat, and one of grit was always before them. The drop- 
pings were cleaned up each morning, the hens dusted a couple 
of times during each hatch, and with such treatment they 
brought off twenty-eight fluffy little babes who immediately 
started in to scratch and grQw as these birds can with half 
a chance. The chicks were all given to one hen, not fed for 
thirty-six hours and then were given grit for a first meal, fol- 
lowed by a judicious mixture of small grains ; after three days 
of this a dish of beef scrap and one of chick feed was placed before 
them and they were on the high road to big chickendom. They 
were of course, carefully greased on the tops of their little heads 
and under the neck on being allowed their first meal and the 
mother carefully dusted again. Their nest was changed, the 
mother kept within the little enclosure and the babes allowed to 
run. They do not go away far when the mother is kept shut up 
and grow so much better than when the mother is allowed to run 
also. 

The same care was taken of the next little brood and soon 
the chicken yard, which by this time had been divided into six 
pens 12x50, ft. each, was filled with the small birds. She started 
her first hatch January 15, and every succeeding ist and 15th saw 
two hens set and carefully cared for until July 22nd saw the last 
hatch. There were at this time twelve hens with their broods. 
The first hatches beat the late ones in size but the color ran better 
late in the season. Each one of these twelve hens had two broods 
to raise. August 15th the first four hatches were divided as to 
sex, and the cockerels that ran at all to legginess, red in plumage 
or poor combs were fattened and sold at 25 cents a pound to the 
butcher. The pullets were all kept. By September I5tli there 
were 175 good birds on the place after a second culling. She 
picked out the best cockerel for herself and fifty of the best pullets. 
The remainder of the pullets were put in a neighbor's yard which 
she rented for a very small sum and divided into three pens ; in 
one she put the twenty-four hens, her incubators for that season 
which were replaced by mechanical ones for the next. In the 
other two pens she put the sales cockerels and pullets and placed 
an ad. in one of the poultry magazines and the largest daily paper. 
One of the cockerels was purchased by the breeding farm from 
which she got her original stock, for $25, and she sold several for 
$5 and $10 and all her pullets at $2 :50 to $15. 

Don't forget that she had purchased the best stock she could 
obtain and knew they had been carefully bred from good stock 



92 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

many generations back. Her success would not have been so 
great had she not been able to show to the customer an unusually 
good bird. 

She cleared above her feed bill and other expenses, $600, be- 
sides increasing her stock that first year. The next year she took 
the old male bird and mated him with twelve of the best pullets, 
took the finest of the cockerels and mated him to the six hens; 
there were two fine breeding pens. She exchanged two fine young 
cockerels for two cock birds with the ranch that supplied her first 
stock, and mated up two more pens. Now she was cramped for 
room, so sold to this ranch any number of eggs, as well as to other 
customers, for the customer of the year before always comes back 
again after fair treatment. 

Her husband about this time woke up and purchased a ten- 
acre ranch in a good location and this small beginning bids fair 
to be one of the best ranches in the state. The ranch with which 
she had had such pleasant dealings, farmed out hundreds of their 
chickens to her and sent any number of customers to her that 
they could not supply, each being of great benefit to the other. 
There is so much to be made out of poultry in this Western coun- 
try that every one in the business should encourage others to go 
into it. There is such a demand for poultry of all kinds, the finely 
bred, market and egg-producing solely, that too many ranches can 
not be established. Of course there is plenty of work in poultry 
raising and I think that is one of the reasons that so many failures 
are made. People think there is nothing to it but to purchase a 
lot of birds and let them do the rest on feed whenever the spirit 
moves the owner to supply it. They should be fed regularly, 
housed in quarters where no draft can reach them, but plenty of 
good fresh air; no vermin should be tolerated a minute and no 
filth of any sort. It would take a fine tooth comb to get any filth 
from a modern, up-to-date ranch that is paying well, but when you 
visit a place where your nostrils are offended and the chicks are 
droopy, the water foul, and roost-houses sunless and filthy, just 
say to yourself, "No money is being made here." In all proba- 
bility the owner will tell you so himself and try to discourage the 
prospective chicken rancher, but did you ever have a clean, well- 
built, well-stocked, big paying ranch offered to you? If you did 
and didn't take it, write to me about it and I can sell it to any 
one of a dozen people anxious to get established. 



Questions and Answers. 

CALIFORNIA ADVANTAGES. 

Question — What are the advantages in California, over 
other States, as regards poultry raising? 

Answer — A mild climate especially adapted to poultry cul- 
ture — the cheapest of buildings necessary for a poultry plant — one 
of the best markets in the world, with unlimited demand — land of 
any description and price — the advantages of combining poultry 
with fruit, bees, alfalfa or other agricultural pursuits. 

DOUGLAS MIXTURE. 

Question — What is Douglas Mixture and how is it made? 

Answer — Douglas Mixture is a good tonic, and is made as 
follows: Sulphuric acid one half-ounce and copperas one-half 
pound in a half gallon of water. It is administered by placing a 
tablespoonful in the drinking water for a dozen fowls daily. 

BRASSY PLUMAGE. 

Question— What causes brassy color in white fowls ? Does 
the feeding of yellow corn have a tendency to increase or main- 
tain the brassy and cream color in white fowls? 

Answer — Brassy color is inherited from the parent stock 
just as any other color defect, but is often brought out and in- 
tensified by the rays of the sun. There are many who think that 
yellow corn fed to white birds afifects their color,' but it has never 
been satisfactorily proven. 

OVERFED. 

Question — I have about sixteen Plymouth Rock hens, have 
kept them housed up all winter. Some of them weigh nine to nine 
and a half pounds, but they do not lay any eggs, and seem to want 
to loaf about and do nothing. What is the cause of this ? 

Answer— The hens have been fed to death on fattening food 
of some kind. Put the hens to work, bury all their food in with 
the grain, and spade the dirt over it, so that they will have to dig 
and scratch for every bit of food they get to eat. If this plan is 
followed out, the hens will do good service. 

lice AND MITES. 

Question — Now that we are overrun with work, the lice 
and mites have gained a considerable foothold in all the cracks 
and crevices of our poultry house. Under the roosts are what 
look like bunches of swarming bees. The mites are so thick and 



94 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

so determined that they almost eat up the hens. What shall I do ? 
Answer — Proceed first to sweep down the ceiling and the 
side walls of the entire interior of the house thoroughly with a 
stifif broom, and destroy every particle of hay or straw from the 
nest boxes. Sweep and clean the dropping boards and the floors 
of the henhouse thoroughly, and remove every bit of the litter 
that has been accumulated in this way to some excluded spot, and 
burn it. Spray every crack and crevice of the poultry house, in- 
cluding nest boxes, with kerosene oil. Spray the nest boxes, the 
roosts and the dropping board with a good covering of some good 
liquid lice killer. Dust all birds with a good insect powder until 
your fowls are free from vermin. 

score; op an exhibition pen. 

Question — How is the score of a pen of birds in the show 
room determined? 

Answer — An exhibition pen consists of four females and 
one male. The scores of the four best females are added and this 
total divided by four. To the amount thus obtained is added the 
score of the male, and this total is score of the pen. 

preserving eggs by the water glass method. 

Question — What is the best method of preserving eggs? 

Answer — Careful tests have been made with various com- 
pounds, and Water Glass has in each case proven most satis- 
factory. It is also called Soluble Glass. The chemical name is 
silicate of sodium or silicate of potassium. It can be purchased 
at any drug store, and costs about 50 cents per gallon, which is 
sufficient to preserve 50 dozen eggs. To one cj[uart of Water Glass 
add ten quarts of water. It is best to use water that has been 
boiled and is perfectly clean. The eggs should be wiped clean, 
but should not be washed. Earthenware jars are best for storing 
the eggs, which should be entirely submerged in the liquid. If 
wooden barrels or kegs are used, see that they are first thoroughly 
scalded with boiling water. Eggs can be kept by this method 
from nine to twelve months. 

home made EICE powder. 

Question — How can we make good lice powder to dust our 
birds with. We use dusting powder in large quantities and find 
most of the prepared powder? very expensive ? 

Answer — We have found the following a very effective dust- 
ing powder and very cheap to use where the flock is large. The 
powder is made as follows : 50 lbs. sulphur, 10 lbs. sifted air 
slacked lime, 25 lbs. sifted road dust, 5 lbs. Buach insect powder. 
Mix thoroughly and hold fowl over a barrel while dusting. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 9S 

\ CULLS. 

(Question — What is meant by "culls" ? 

Answer — The term "cull" is given to fowls that are from the 
best breeding, but are lacking in strong development of one or 
more features which must be present to make them good exhi- 
bition specimens. 

ALFALFA AS A POULTRY FOOD. 

Question — Is alfalfa a good poultry food ? What is the best 
method of feeding it ? When and how should it be planted ? 

Answer — Alfalfa is the ideal green food for poultry and will 
supply about one-fourth of the necessary food supply. It can be 
cut and run through a clover cutter and fed in troughs or the 
birds can be turned into the growing alfalfa at regular intervals ; 
they will kill out the crop if too many are allowed on a limited 
space. Plant just before the last winter rains after the possibility 
of frost killing the young growth is past. Have the ground care- 
fully prepared and plant the seed so that it is just covered with 
fine earth. 

dry feeding and mash. 

Question — What is a good mixture of dry grains for dry 
feeding? What is the best system for feeding under this system? 
Can the ground grain mixture be used as a wet mash when de- 
sired ? 

Answer — Mix loo lbs. bran, 50 lbs. shorts, 50 lbs. corn meal 
and 25 lbs. beef scraps. Feed dry in troughs, leaving the feed be- 
fore the birds until they eat their fill each morning and remove 
what is left. Give cut alfalfa at noon and a mixture of whole 
wheat, barley and oats and kaffir corn, scattered in scratching 
material, for the night feed. The mixture given above for the 
dry morning feed is equally valuable when used as a wet mash. 

PRICES OF grains. 

Questions — At what price can grains for feeding poultry be 
bought for in California markets? 

Answer — The prices vary on the different grains at dif- 
ferent points in the state, as in the case of wheat ; in the great 
wheat sections this grain can be bought cheaper than in other 
parts of the state. From quotations at hand we can give the 
average price charged for the following grains during the past 
five years: Barley $1.20 per 100 lbs; Wheat $1.70 per 100 lbs.; 
Kafifir Corn $1.65 per 100 lbs.; Corn $1.45 per 100 lbs.; Bran 
$1.30 per 100 lbs.; Feed corn meal $1.55 per 100 lbs.; Cracked 
Corn $1.60 per 100 lbs. 

chick food. 

Question — ^What is a good chick food similar to the grain 
mixtures on the market for young chicks ? 



96 CALIFORNIA POULTkY CULTURE. 

Answer — Cracked wheat 25 parts, pinhead oatmeal 15 parts, 
millet seed 10 parts, cracked corn 10 parts, granulated charcoal 5 
parts, chick size grit 10 parts, buckwheat' 5 parts, rape seed 5 
parts, broken rice 5 parts, cracked peas 5 parts, and ground beef 
scraps or other meat meal 5 parts. Some of these are not easily 
obtainable in all sections and the mixture should be made with 
the ingredients at hand and considering cost. 

CIvASSlFlCATlON OF DRFSSFD POULTRY. 

Questions — At what weights are squab broilers, broilers, 
fryers and soft roasters received in the Californian markets? 

Answer — Squab broilers three-quarter lb. ; broilers i lb. to 
2 lbs. ; Fryers i and one-half lb. to 3 lbs. ; soft roasters 3 and one- 
half lbs. and up. 

THE AVERAGE PRICE OF LIVE POULTRY AND MARKET EGGS. 

Question — What is the average price to the producers in 
California markets for live poultry and market eggs? 

Answer — In the Los Angeles market (the best in the State) 
for the year ending June 30th, 1906, the average price paid for 
live poultry was: broilers, fryers and roasters 15 cents per lb.; 
hens 12 cents per lb.; old roosters 8 cents per lb. The average 
price paid for eggs during the same period was 31 cents per 
dozen. 

WHITE ON chicks OF BLACK VARIETIES. 

Question — Should chicks of a variety which should when 
fully feathered be black show white markings when first hatched ? 

Answer — Yes, all chicks from black varieties show white 
down when first hatched. Many breeders claim that the more 
white they show as chicks the more green sheen they will carry in 
their adult feathers. 

WHAT is A strain. 

Question — When can a breeder claim to have a strain? 

Answer — A strain is a family of any variety of fowls bred 
in line by descent, by one fancier or a successor, during a number 
of years, that has acquired individual characteristics which dis- 
tinguish it more or less from other strains or specimens of the 
same variety. 

LARGEST turkeys. 

Question — Which is the largest breed of turkeys? 
Answer — The Bronze. The standard weight for cocks is 36 
lbs. and for hens 20 lbs. 

SEX in ducks. 
Question — How can the sexes be distinguished in ducks ? 
Answer — The first noticable feature in young birds is the 
drake's longer bill, neck and body and a more upright carriage. 



^^ CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 97 

When about four weeks old the duck can be distinguished by her 
quack. The drake has a finer voice, and at four months the 
curled feathers appear in the tail. 

GOVERNMENT WHITEWASH. 

Question — ^What is the recipe for the whitewash used by the 
U. S. government for lighthouses, etc? 

Answer — Slake in boiling water one-half bushel of lime. 
Strain so as to remove all sediment. Add two pounds of sulphate 
of zinc, one pound of common salt and one-half pound whiting, 
thoroughly dissolved. Mix to proper consistency with skim milk, 
if possible, and if not use hot water. Stir in thoroughly half 
pint of liquid glue and apply the wash while hot. It may be 
colored if desired, by using yellow ochre, ultramarine blue, lamp 
black, etc. It will compare favorably both in appearance and 
durability with a good quality of paint. 




The Egg. 



That the development of all animal hfe is done in the egg 
form most people know, but as to the various modes of develop- 
ment few are acquainted. In the mammal species the egg is 
retained throughout the period of incubation inside the body. 
In bird life the egg is enclosed in a shell, and incubation can be 
arrested for any period so long as the life is not destroyed. As the 
yolk becomes fully ripe the membrane which envelopes it becomes 
gradually thinner, especially around its greatest diameter, where 




The Egg Organs. 

can be seen a pale circle or belt called the stigma. Finally the 
sac ruptures at this point, and the liberated yolk and germ in- 
cased in a very thin and delicate membrane, is received by the 
funnel-shaped opening of the egg passage or oviduct, (see fig- 
ure 2), whose work it is to convey to the outer world, and on 
its way furnish it with every thing needful for its development 
and preservation. This organ in an ordinary hen is nearly 
two feet in length, but in the illustration is a little modified for 
convenience of representation. 

It will be easily seen how two yolks may escape and enter 
the oviduct at nearly the same time, in which case they will 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 99 

\ 
most likely be developed in the same white and shell, thus caus- 
ing a double yolked egg. The mucous membrane of the oviduct 
secretes a fluid which envelopes the yolk, and is added layer 
by layer as the egg passes on its way. This is called the white 
or albumen, and has many uses. It is greatly nutritious, and 
forms the chief nourishment for the chick during its growth in 
the shell, and as it is absorbed by the httle creature it gives the 
fast growing body the necessary increase of room, seeing that 
it forms the greatest part of the egg when laid. It also guards 
the hatching egg against chill which would prove fatal when the 
hen leaves the nest, it being a bad conductor, and it protects 
the delicate yolk and vital germs from concussion and other 
injuries. At a further point of the oviduct the egg becomes in- 
vested with the skin or parchment like covering which is bound 
inside the shell, and consists really of two layers. This can be 
separated easily. At the large end of the egg they do separate, 
which thus forms the air chamber. This is small in a fresh egg 
but enlarges as it becomes older. In the last portion of the 
oviduct the egg becomes coated with that calcareous deposit 
which forms the shell. The now ripe egg passes into the cloaca 
(figure 3) and is ready to be expelled. If this portion of the 
oviduct be in an unhealthy condition, or the yolk is ripened 
by the ovary faster than the shell can be formed, then we get 
soft or unshelled eggs. As is well known, eggs vary in color 
according to the different breeds. This coloring matter is added 
over the solid ingredient. In somecasesit is a deep, rich, pinky 
buff, in others brown spots or splashes, and some are covered 
with a kind of whitewash which, if rubbed with a rough cloth, 
will reveal a buff, brown tint underneath. All these things 
depend upon a peculiar condition of the secreting organs; so 
does the shape of the egg of each bird when finally laid. 



KEEPING AND MARKETING EGGS. 



The eggs, whether intended for market or for hatching, should 
be kept in clean cases, either the wire spring pattern or paste- 
board fillers, and should be kept in a moderately cool room that 
is clean and well ventilated, and where the temperature does not 
go below 50 or above 60 degrees. This room should not con- 
tain any vegetables, oil or other matter having strong odor, as such 
articles will taint the eggs. The eggs should be packed in the cases 
small end downward. Where they are intended for hatching, 
it will be a wise plan to turn them every day or two. For this 
purpose a revolving egg cabinet will prove a labor-saving es- 
sential. These cabinets are a practical invention, devised for 
the purpose of caring for eggs for hatching, providing means 
for turning the eggs with little expenditure of time and no loss 

LCfC 



100 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

through breakage or careless handling. These cabinets can be 
purchased in several sizes, from 150 to 700 eggs. 

In earher times eggs, if sold at all, were marketed near the 
place where they were produced and many are still sold in local 
markets, but with improved methods of transportation the 
market has been extended and large quantities are now shipped 
to distant points. Special egg cases are required for carrying 
eggs long distances. 

Eggs which are to be shipped, should be perfectly fresh and 
should never be packed in any material which has a disagrree- 
able or strong odor. All new laid eggs should be graded accord- 
ing to size and color. Musty straw, cardboard, bran, or other 
packing material having a disagreeable odor will injure the 
flavor and keeping qualities of the eggs packed in it. Keeping 
eggs near a lot of apples, or other goods having a pronounced 
odor, during transportation has been known to iniure the flavor 
of the eggs and reduce their market value. Micro-organisms 
may enter the minute pores of the eggs and start fermentation 
which ruins the eggs for market purposes. Eggs which have been 
kept in a warm place, or where the germ has been started under 
a broody hen, will also become rotten, and the presence of a 
few such eggs in a case will result in a loss of price on the whole 
shipment. The normal mucilagiaous coati^ig of the surface of 
the egg protects it, and somewhat hinders the entrance of the 
organisms which start fermentation. This coating is removed 
Or injured by washing the eggs and the keeping qualities of the 
eggs thereby diminished. For this reason it is not a good plan 
to wash eggs which are to be shipped some distance to market 
or which are not intended for immediate use. 



PACKING EGGS FOR SHIPMENT. 

For safe ways of packing eggs, our rule is to try to pack 
them so securely that if one lets them fall from the height of 
one's head to the ground none will be broken. 

For the one, two and three settings and fifty, take a good, 
firm basket. They are called diamond market baskets, of eight, 
sixteen and twenty-four quarts sizes; and first line them with 
paper. Then put in a lining of excelsior, leaving just enough 
room to stand the eggs in the center after wrapping each egg in a 
large sheet of paper. Take one page of a newspaper, putting the egg 
on one side in the center, giving the paper several turns, then fold 
overtheone side of the paper, give it a half wrap so the fold comes 
under, and fold the other side. This gives tlie egg many folds 
of the paper on each side, and the ends are firm, making a sort 
of box for the egg. To make them doubly safe, put excelsior 
between the eggs and on top, and then sew muslin over all, 
putting on a label. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 101 

If you wish, you can buy a wooden box with large egg places 
and wrap each egg and use bran or light sawdust to fill. These 
are safe and less trouble to pack, but will cost more than twice 
as much in money. If you are a beginner and not are shipping 
extra fine eggs, you cannot afford the expensive boxes. We 
have had eggs broken in them also. 

For the one hundred egg orders or over you can take fifties 
or you can use a light egg crate. If you do use a crate use only 
every other hole in the fillers, and be careful that when you 
begin a new filler you do not use the fillers directly over those 
you used in the last layer. 

One of the points to have shipments go safely is to make 
the package firm. If they are too loose the eggs will work to- 
gether and they are sure to be broken. You will not hurt the 
eggs by pressing them a little, and at the sides of the fillers some 
excelsior should be used. If you prefer, you can use bushel 
baskets for hundred egg orders, but I have thought it would 
take more care to pack one of them safely than a crate. The 
one point would be as to which would be handled the best by 
the express companies. It is a safe rule to use handle pack- 
ages as much as possible, for they are by habit handled with 
some care. 

Take the eggs as fresh as possible, and when they are wait- 
ing a few days for an order, be sure and put them where they 
will not dry out, for the inside of an egg should be full so it is 
firm as surely as the outside. I have found in years of shipping 
that eggs will hatch after long shipments — shipments of three 
thousand miles, if they are fresh and well packed. 



Managemnt of Poultry During Summer 

Months. 

This subject naturally divides into topics: i, what fowls to 
keep; 2, how to handle them to best advantage. Both of these 
topics have to be considered with reference to future as well as 
immediate results. 

Old Hens as Layers. — In connection with the question of 
keeping over for another year the hens now from a year to fifteen 
or sixteen months old, arises the old question of the relative 
value of pullets and hens as egg producers, a question which 
has provoked as much controversy and as much needless and 
pointless wrangling as any of the many questions each swiftly 
passing generation of beginners in poultry culture has to solve 
anew for itself. 

There is no best breed of fowls. There is no best method 
of feeding or housing. We are many men of many minds, work- 
ing under many different circumstances, with stocks of fowls 
that have experienced many different conditions. So we can- 
not all use the same rules, nor will any of us be wise to make 
hard and fast rules to govern in the conduct of our business. 

Properly designated, a pullet is a hen less than a year old. 
The period for which results are usually compared is from the 
time the first pullets bsgin to lay — generally October or No- 
vember — until the next spring or early summer. Hence, in 
such comparisons, no account, as a rule, is taken of the per- 
formance of the hen, during summer and early fall, though it 
must be evident to every one that in considering the question 
we must consider what we may get out of the hens in the four 
months or so before the pullets are laying, as well as what we 
may get in the winter and spring. 

Some authorities advise and some poultrymen make a 
practice of disposing of laying stock in the fall when the hens 
that were pullets in the preceding winter are sixteen to eighteen 
months old. We think it is much the better way to give the 
old stock a general overhauling before extreme warm weather 
comes on, and arrange at that time for the most profitable dis- 
position of each of the several lots into which the flock will be 
divided. When the general clean-up is to be made in the fall 
the tendency is to leave in the flock many hens which should 
be disposed of without delay, the reason the poultryman gives 
himself for this being that, as the bulk of the lot is to be dis- 
posed of at that future time, it makes little difference if the few 
vmprofitables are allowed to remain in it. Consequently some 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. lOS 

proportion of the fowls in each pen or flock are non-producers, 
adding nothing to the income, while consuming their share of 
the food, occup^nng room, taking time and attention of the 
poultryman, and, last but not least, adding to the risks of loss. 
for the idle, unproductive fowl is detrimental to the flock. 

If as the poultry keeper reviews his experiences of the past 
year he recalls any of the following things as circumstances in 
the history of his flock of yearling hens, he is warranted in con- 
sidering that an unusually large proportion of them are not good 
candidates to keep over: i, if they were not thrifty as young 
chicks; 2, if at any period of growth they were checked; 3, if 
there was at any time during the year any serious sickness epi- 
demic among them; 4, if they were spasmodic layers; 5, if after 
a period of good laying they suddenly fell off and were hard to 
get laying again; 6, if they are now generally in poor condition. 

In selecting from a flock of yearlings that have been gen- 
erally in good condition, free from disease, and fair to good egg 
producers, take first those that are plainly in good health and 
condition, bright looking and presumed to be laying or about 
to lay. Hens that answer that description at this culling season 
we may say quite positively that it will pay to keep over. 

Ventilation in the Poultry House. — Many poultry houses 
are so constructed that they cannot be thoroughly ventilated. 
Many that might be well ventilated by leaving all doors and win- 
dows open day and night are but partly opened in the day- 
time, and almost closed at night. Houses with the roosts next 
low rear walls, and houses with deep narrow pens give very un- 
satisfactory conditions on hot sultry nights. In cool summers 
hens may do fairly well in such houses, but in hot seasons the 
lack of air in such quarters is very debilitating. A summer 
poultry house should be airy day and night; it must be so if the 
fowls are to do well and keep well in it. 

Yards and Range. — Fowls keep in best condition in summer 
if they have good grassy range, with both sun and shade as 
they may want to take them. 

They can, as a rule, be made more productive if confined 
to yards where the supply of green food does not exceed their 
actual needs, and fed well on a ration differing but little from 
that given during cool weather. 

The most productive fowl, however, is not always the most 
profitable fowl. The item of labor must be considered, and the 
more yard room fowls are given the less close attention to their 
wants is necessary. No rule to govern the adjustment of labor 
to production can be given. It must vary under different cir- 
cumstances. 

If a man has nothing to do but take care of his fowls, or 
has ample time to give them all the care required under intensive 
methods, his best policy is to get the largest possible product 
from his hens. 



104 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

If in the use of intensive methods he gives time to poultry 
that otherwise would be devoted to other profitable work, he 
must decide just what division of his time will pay him best. 
Such decision requires some experience and some experiment 
in adjusting methods' to circumstances. The essential thing 
in the early stages of one's work with poultry is to understand 
the need and advantage of striking the right balance in the dis- 
tribution of time to different kinds of work, and direct one's 
effort toward the gradual solution of the problem. 

Consideration must also be given to the fact that, though 
by confinement and high feeding, hens may, as a rule, be made 
more productive than when given more liberty and lighter diet, 
the process wears them out faster, and it is not advisable to 
force in this way hens that are to be used the next season for 
breeding purposes, or indeed hens that are wanted to lay during 
the succeeding winter and spring. High feeding through sum- 
mer should be carried to the limit only with hens that are des- 
tined to be sold as soon as they cease to lay profitably. With 
those we want to produce longer we must be more moderate, and 
must modify the diet, even at cost of reduction in the egg yield, 
during hot weather. 

The Effects of Change. — Another point to be considered 
is that a change of quarters or a change from one system to a 
quite different one, with perhaps changes in diet or method of 
feeding with the changing conditions, will at the same time better 
the condition and the Qgg yield of fowls. 

Again and again poultrymen have taken breeding hens 
after months of heavy laying in confinement, put them on range 
to recuperate, not caring whether the hens laid or not, and found 
that after a little rest they began to lay, and laid well for a long 
time, when if left in their old quarters they would probably 
have done nothing. Good laying under such conditions does 
not seem to take as much out of the fowls as the same production 
in confinement. Such a change is not a sure way of making 
hens lay in summer, but it seems to do so often enough to make 
it worth a trial when other methods fail. 

Green Food. — Ordinarily fowls may be allowed all the green 
food they will eat, both winter and summer. Sometimes, how- 
ever, when the weather is extremely hot they will, if liberally 
supplied with green food, fill up on it and take too little grain to 
sustain egg production at their usual mark. If egg production 
is to be maintained, it is best at such times to feed green 
food only after the fowls have been fed on grain. 

Again, fowls on a range well supplied with grass and insects 
are apt to get in the habit of foraging early, maintaining them- 
selves on insects and grass, and lay very little. The best way 
to do in such cases is to keep the hens up until they have had 
one good feed of grain. If practicable the end sought may be 
gained by increasing the number of fowls on the range, thus 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 105 

making the supply of food each secures by foraging enough less 
than a comfortable sufficiency to keep it ready to take a fair 
ration of grain once or twice a day. 

Animal Food. — A range must be very good indeed to fur- 
nish all the animal food they need to fowls that can get all the 
green food they need on it. Hence under ordinary conditions 
it is more necessary to supplement the animal food of hens on 
range than to provide special supplies of green food, and we 
think hens on range in summer will stand even heavier feeding 
of concentrated, prepared meat foods than when confined in 
winter. For hens that are closely confined it is safer to reduce 
the proportions of prepared animal food, and if it is desired to 
feed meat heavily feed at least a part of fresh meat or green cut 
bone, which contain large percentages of water. In feeding 
concentrated animal foods at this season special attention should 
be given to the quahty of the articles used. Anything of this 
kind that is not sound , sweet and good will produce bad effects 
more quickly in hot weather than at any other time. 

Shade. — It is absolutely necessary that birds be furnished 
with abundant shade during the summer months. Trees and 
natural shade of course is better than "made shade," but where 
yards are located where there are no trees or other shrubs shade 
should be provided. One of the best "made shades" we have 
seen was made from palm leaves placed on a light frame. This 
should be placed high enough from the ground to allow the air 
to circulate under the frame and at the same time be low enough 
to keep the sun from the birds when they are under the shade. 
The birds enjoy a "dust bath" made by wetting iip a portion 
of the ground under the shade and when partly dried spade it 
up ; this is of course an addition to the regular dust bath made 
of dry road dust, and does not take the place of the dry bath. 



Breeds Best Adapted for California. 

The selection of a breed best suited to one's purposes, while 
an important step in establishing a poultry plant, is much a 
matter of taste, for the breeder must have a particular liking 
and unbounded faith in the particular variety or varieties he 
is handling, just as a salesman must have faith in his particular 
line of goods before he can successfully induce others to see them 
to the best advantage. This applies to the purely commercial 
side of the business as well as to the breeder who expects to es- 
tablish a plant solely for the raising of breeding stock and eggs 
for hatching. At the same time one must consider the con- 
ditions under which he is to breed his birds, the location of the 
plant as apphed to climatic conditions, the particular branches 
of the business which are to be ratered to, etc. One must de- 
cide, before making the selection, whether he is to build up an 
egg farm, an egg and meat business, raise bi oilers, roasters, 
ducks, turkeys or establish a plant for the furnishing of breed- 
ing stock and eggs for hatching (or a selected combination of 
the different blanches). California ha,^ such a wide variety 
of climates that it is not pos-.ible to recommend any particular 
variety or varieties that are adapted to all sections of the state. 
This makes it possible to pioduce almost all of the Standard 
varieties in our state, where we have the cUmate of New Eng- 
land in our high altitudes to the dryest of deserts and the trop- 
ical climates in the valleys of our sea boards. 

While we do not contend that this or that particular breed 
can not be raised with profit under any climate we know from 
experience that some breeds do better under the climatic con- 
ditions of certain sections than others when given the same care 
and attention. Therefore we believe it wise for a breeder to 
select a variety best suited to his particular climatic conditions. 

Be careful in selecting your breed or breeds and when the 
selection is made stick to that variety and make the most out 
of it. Start with the best stock obtainable; cheap stock is high 
at any price whether they are intended for market or for breed- 
ing show stock. 

BREEDS BEST SUITED FOR THE EGG FARM. 

For the exclusive egg farm breeds in the Mediterranean 
class are acknowledged to be preeminent; the breeds comprising 
this class are the Single and Rose Comb Brown, White and Single 
Comb Brown, White, Buff, Black and Silver Duckwing Leg- 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 107 

boms; Single Comb Black and White Minorcas and Rose Comb 
Black Mmorcas; Blue Andalusians, White Faced Black. Spanish 
and Mottled Anconas. All of the varieties in this class are non- 
sitters and have tested egg^ records of from 200 to 280 eggs per 
year per hen. 

WHITE LEGHORNS. 

Single Comb White Leghorns have become very popular 
as an all round egg farm biid for California and are surely worthy 
ot the praise that has been given them. The White Leghorn 
has been bred along lines to produce a large framed high sta- 
tioned bird, which has given them something of a lead over the 
other varieties m this class both for the production of large eggs 
beauty and all around usefulness. A flock of these birds with 
their snow white plumage and sprightly appearance, foraging 




Single Comb White Leghorns. 

on a California alfalfa field makes the ideal picture of beauty 
and productiveness. While White Leghorns are considered easier 
to breed true to feather than some other of the varieties carry- 
ing several color pigments in their plumage, high class speci- 
mens m this variety are highly prized and really are as rare as 
some ot the breeds considered very hard to breed The ad- 
vantage m breeding the White over some of the Parti-colored 
breeds is that the percentage of culls is very much smaller and 
the average quality of the flock easier to maintain 



108 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

A Standard White Leghorn should be a bird standing well 
up on legs, sprightly and showing great alertness and graceful 
curves. They should be essentially a bird of trim build and 
specimens running to the over large and coarse appearance de- 
part from the true type and are also apt to be less valuable as 
egg producers. We do not mean by this that White Leghorns 
should be of diminutive size in order to insure their productive- 
ness; on the contrary we favor a bird of high station, long back, 
well filled out frame, but such a bird can and is being bred 
with spleiidid Leghorn type, showing none of the coarseness 
which destroys the bird both for the show pen and exclusive 
egg production. The plumage should be snow white in all sec- 
tions; the ever troublesome "brassiness," while not as prevalent 
in the White Leghorns as in some of the other white breeds, is 
nevertheless found in many fine specimens, especially in the 
males, and should be carefully avoided in mating the breeding 
pens. Another common defect and one that should be con- 
sidered carefully before a bird (and this apphes to all the Medi- 
terraneans) is placed in the breeding pen is the carrying of the 
tail so that a portion of it projects towards the neck, beyond 
the perpendicular line at the juncture of the tail and back; this 
is called "Squirrel Tail" and generally goes with a short back 
which makes it a defect to be avoided in both show and utility 
birds. The Standard calls for the tails of Leghorn males to be 
carried at an angle of foity-five degrees from the horizontal and 
in the females at an angle of forty degrees. The back should 
be of good length, the saddle raising in a short concave sweep 
to the tail. The breast should be very full and have the appear- 
ance of being cairied well forward. Ear-lobes should be of 
medium size, as smooth and fine in texture as possible and in 
color white or creamy white, we prefer the clear white lobes 
as we have found that the birds showing the creamy lobes are 
the ones most apt to show "brassiness" in plumage. The comb 
of the male should be of medium size rather fine in texture with 
five even points; standing upright and firm on the head; in the 
females the comb is the same with the exception that it should 
fall gracefully to one side of the head. A very striking thing 
about a well bred White Leghorn is its beautiful bright yellow 
beak and shanks and toes; in contrast with the snow white plum- 
age these show up to the best advantage. In some sections 
the soil and climatic conditions are somewhat against the yellow 
leg and beak birds and cause them to fade into a light color 
more white than yellow. We know of a number of flocks how- 
ever that have been bred to a point where neither soil or cli- 
matic conditions had any affect on the color of legs or beaks 
and any breeder can get fine color in these sections by careful 
selection of his breeding birds. The mixing of the yellow pig- 
ments for these sections and at the same time retaining the clear 
white plumage has been a problem that the breeders of many 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



109 



I Sfu '\^ varieties have had to cope with, and the breeders 
ot White Leghorns have solved the question perhaps better 
tnan any ot the others as an inspection of the large flocks through- 
out the country will prove. It is these small defects in many 
cases unimportant m themselves but when a number are found 
on the same bird, as they frequently are, they make the pro- 
duction of a really first class White Leghorn and interesting 
study to both the fancier and the commercial breeder It is 
m the size of their eggs that the White Leghorns surpass all the 
other varieties m the Leghorn family. Some strains have been 
bred to a high quality in this regard. We know of several breed- 
ers who have flocks that produce eggs that weigh six and seven 
to the pound. Such eggs with their clear white shells always 
command a special price in the Cahfornia markets. White Leg- 
horns are generally handled on an egg farms in colonies with 
tree range, and are at their best when called upon to forage for 
a part of their living; at the same time many breeders have 
tound that they got better results from birds kept in confine- 
ment. None of the Leghorns are easily put out of condition 
by improper feeding, especially by overfeeding, and this is un- 
doubtedly the reason many breeders are able to get a greater 
^gg yield from them than from some of the heavier varieties 
This is particularly true with birds in hmited quarters Many 
of the largest and most successful egg farms in California breed 
White Leghorns exclusively; particularly is this true of the 
arge plants m and around the great poultrv district at Peta- 
luma and throughout Central and Southern 'Cahfornia. 

BROWN LEGHORNS. 

As we stated in the opening part of this chapter the matter 
ot taste should go a long ways in deciding the variety to be 
taken up. In this regard the Brown Leghorn is a good example 
wu-^ T ^^^ "^^"y attractive features not possessed by the 
White Leghorns and at the same time have all good qualities 
found m their sohd colored cousins. They have" one very im- 
portant advantage over the Whites, a color that withstands the 
hottest summers without fading or becoming dirty with the 
dusty atmosphere. For this reason they are popular with breed- 
ers living m California districts where the summers are warm 
and of lasting duration. Not that the Browns do not do well 
m the cooler and damper sections, for they have been one of 
the most popular Cahfornia breeds for years and there is prob- 
ably no better place m the world to produce high class show speci- 
mens of this variety than in this state.a fact which has been em- 
phasized the past few years by California Brown Leghorns carry- 
ing off some of the b33t prizes in the largest eastern poultry 
exhibitions. That this variety has great producing and beauty 
qualities no one who has bred them will contradict; that thev 



110 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



are especially adapted to the climate of California is an acknowl- 
edged fact. A well known eastern poultry expert while visit- 
ing California was asked what impressed him the most in the 
poultry line and he promptly replied, "its great possibilities 
for producing world beating Brown Leghorns." Brown Leg- 
horns are not an easy variety to breed to standard requirements, 
in fact the females are probably as hard a proposition in this 
regard as we have in standard poultry culture; however, this 
only makes them more attractive to the fancier as it is a great 
honor to produce good specimens and they always com.mand 
good prices. Unlike some of the other fancy-and-hard-to-pro- 
duce varieties the Brown Leghorns are great producers and are 




Single Comb Brown Leghorns. 



noted for their egg laying qualities ; therefore a breeder can have 
a profitable flock of birds and at the same time satisfy his 
hobby from a strictly fancy point of view. 

The past few years have seen great strides in the qualities 
of the Brown Leghorns, notably in the increased size and in the 
size of the eggs they produce. These points were somewhat 
overlooked by the breeders of Browns for a number of years, 
in their effort to improve their beautiful color points; as the 
breeders of the White Leghorns had been making a special ef- 
fort for size of both birds and eggs, this variety gained some- 
what of a lead over their beautiful cousins in the yards of the 
commercial breeder. At the present time the two varieties are 
held in about equal esteem by both the fancier and the com- 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. Ill 

mercial breeder. A choice is usually made from a fancy for one 
or the other color than from any difference in their producing 
quahties. In shape and general type the Brown Leghorn is 
identical with the Whites. The color of the male is very at- 
tractive and makes one of the most beautifully plumaged bird 
in the standard varieties. The hackle should be of a deep rich 
brilliant red with a distinct black stripe down the middle of each 
feather, the black not to extend over the end of the feather but 
come to a point near the end; the red to form a lacing around 
the entire outer edge of the feather. The back should be rich 
red, the saddle same color and striped as described in the hackle. 
The breast should be a rich black without any splashes of foreign 
color. Wing bows should be same color as the back, the flight 
feather, upper part black and lower edge a reddish brown, when 
folded this should form a well defined black wing bar. The 
tail should be a greenish black; undercolor slate; legs, toes, comb 
and earlobes same as in the White variety. The female Brown 
Leghorn is the pride of the fanciers heart and while not as at- 
tractive to the eye as some of the other birds a well bred flock 
of Brown Leghorn pullets or hens are a sight that will please 
any lover of web and feather. The color scheme of the Brown 
Leghorn female is a bird clothed in a soft brown plumage in 
back and wings (lower web of flight feather on wing black but 
not showing when wing is folded) the brown finely penciled 
with dark brown, the lighter brown predominating, producing 
an even soft brown tint. The breast should be a rich salmon; 
hackle a rich orange yellow, striped with black the same as in 
the male; the tail should be black except the two highest main 
tail feathers which are penciled as on back; The main defect 
in most specimens is the presence of shafting showing in the 
center of the feathers in all sections. Birds selected for breed- 
ing purposes should be as free from this defect as possible. The 
dark brown penciling should not have a coarse appearance as 
it is important to produce an even soft brown tint and to do 
this there must be a fine intermixing of the light and darker 
brown. In legs, toes, comb and all other sections the Brown 
Leghorn females • are the same as the White Leghorns. 

Brown Leghorns (as are all of the Leghorns) are rapid grow- 
ers and the pullets are at a laying stage before many of the larger 
breeds are fully feathered. The up-to-date Brown Leghorns 
lay a large white shelled egg, and lots of them ; some breeders 
contend that they are better winter layers than any of the other 
varieties of Leghorns but we are of the opinion that there is 
more in the strain, and the way it has been bred, than in the 
difference in the varieties as a class. In fitting a plant for the 
producing of eggs for market no mistake will be made if Brown 
Leghorns are selected. 



112 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



BUFF LEGHORNS. 

Here is a most excellent bird that has not received the at- 
tention that it deserves from breeders in California. Buff Leg- 
horns are well adapted to this climate and those who have bred 
them find that they are one of the greatest egg producers we 
have. Of all the Buff breeds with the exception of the old Buff 
Cochin, the Buff Leghorns breed the truest to correct color. 
They are of good size, not quite as large in frame as the Whites 
or Browns, and are one of the best in the Leghorn family to 
stand close confinement; at the same time thev are excellent 




Pair of Buff Leghorns. 

foragers ; their eggs are usually of good size arid they commence 
to lay at an age that makes the pullets soon produce their value 
in eggs. In general type they are hke the other Leghorns ; plum- 
age should be of a rich golden buff in all sections producing a 
harmonious blending of buff color throughout the entire plum- 
age. Birds with mealy plumage and those with shaft of feather 
showing are to be avoided; an even shade of buff in all sections 
is to be most desired. There is no variety among the standard 
breeds that is hardier, grows faster or lays more eggs in a year 
than the sprightly Buff Leghorn and there is no breed that will 
better suit the purpose of the man who wants to start an egg 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 113 

farm or the fancier who wants a fiock for beauty that are pro- 
ducers as well. Again it is only a matter of taste. 

BLACK LEGHORNS. 

The history of this very beautiful and profitable variety 
proves conclusively that the work of the fancier very materially 
affects the progress of a variety not only as a strictly fancy bird 
but as a commercial fowl as well. In the case of the Black Leg- 
horns we have a very attractive bird, with all the good qualities 
of the other Leghorns, yet it is seldom found in any numbers 
and we do not know of a single case where they have been used 
on an egg ranch. 

While we are willing to admit that the popularity of the 
Black Minorcas has in a measure retarded the growth of this 
variety, we do not believe that it is responsible for keeping them 
in the rear of the money-making variety procession as they are 
found today. To those who have not followed the history of 
the standard varieties of poultry it may seem very strange that 
a small matter of color of shanks should retard and practically 
ruin the usefulness of a variety possessing wonderful producing 
qualities and a member of one of the most popular classes in the 
American Standard. 

This, however, is the case: For years past the American 
Standard makers have persisted in demanding that Black Leg- 
horns with shanks other than yellow or yellowish-black should 
be disqualified in the show room. As nature never intended 
that birds with black plumage should carry yellow pigment it 
has been next to impossible to produce specimens that would 
do for exhibition purposes and in consequence they have been 
neglected by the fancier and have up to this time received no 
attention from the commercial breeder. We do not want to be 
understood as saying that the Black Leghorns have no admirers, 
they are found in the yards of many prominent breeders and 
their good qualities are praised by every one who has ever given 
them a trial. There is a movement on foot to change the pres- 
ent Standard and when that is done Black Leghorns should 
take their place with the other popular varieties in the Leghorn 
family. 

SILVER DUCKWING LEGHORNS. 

This is the latest member of the Leghorn family to be ad- 
mitted to the Standard but they have already made rapid strides 
towards popularity and have many admirers in California where 
they have been given a thorough test and found equal to their 
older cousins. The Silver Duckwings are considered the most 
attractive variety in the Leghorn class and they certainly make 
a showy appearance in their combination of glossy black and 
silvery white plumage. 



114 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

In all but color the Silver Duckwing Leghorn should be 
identical with the other varieties in the Leghorn class. The 
color of plumage in males should be : neck with- the exception 
of the hackle should be rich, glossy black; the hackle is silvery 
white with a black stripe down the middle of each lower hackle 
feather. Back is silvery white; cape black; saddle silvery white; 
breast black; body and fluff black. The wings should be glossy 
black and silvery white with a distinct glossy black bar across 
the wing. Main tail lustrus black, lower coverts silvery white. 
The females are somewhat different in color markings from the 
males. The neck with the exception of the hackle should be a 
light salmon color; hackle silvery gray with a black stripe ex- 
tending down the middle of each feather, the back should be 
light gray showing no dark marks or bars. The breast is light 
salmon shading to gray towards the outer edge, wings should 
be light gray, free from dark bars, marks or red. Tail should 
be black with the exception of the two largest tail feathers which 
are light gray. 

BLACK MINORCAS. 

This is the largest bird in the Mediterranean class. The 
Standard demands that they weigh, cocks 9 lbs; cockerels -j^ 
lbs., hens 7 }4 lbs.; pullets 6>^ lbs .This variety is not used on 
egg farms as much as their good qualities justify. They are 
equally as prolific egg producers as the Leghorns and lay the 
largest egg of any of the Standard varieties. A case or basket 
of these clear white, extra large eggs always attracts the atten- 
tion of the buyers and easily command better prices than the 
average run of eggs. The Black Minorca of today is undoubtedly 
the Black Spanish of fifty years ago. The fancier built up a line 
of the old blood on the lines of our modem White Faced Black 
Spanish and another line went on as it had always been bred 
for commercial purposes. This latter line resulted in our modem 
Black Minorcas. 

In addition to the number and size of Black Minorca eggs 
they are to be credited with beginning to lay at a very_ early 
age, and continue to be profitable layers for a longer period of 
time than almost any other bird of which we have knowledge. 
They are excellent foragers, strong and active, always on the 
alert for any natural advantages that come within their reach, 
and having little tendency to lay on fat, the food they consume 
gives profitable returns in the form of eggs. 

The white skin, somewhat marred by the black pin feathers 
and black legs, is a handicap from the market poultry stand- 
point, but the flesh is of an excellent flavor, deliciously tender 
in the younger birds, and with such a considerably larger amount 
of flesh than is found in the Leghorn it is, as we stated, a matter 
of a surprise that the Black Minorca is not more generally util- 
ized as an egg-farm breed. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



115 



Minorcas have a distinct and marked type of their own and 
while they are built on the same general lines as the other varie- 
ties in the Mediterranean class are really very unlike them in 
shape and symmetry. Birds of the short legged, closely built 
type should be, avoided for the real Minorca type is a bird with 
a long body set upon a pair of firm, muscular legs making a bird 



.^■^^ ¥i£!T^M 




Black Minorcas. 

with a powerful looking body. The plumage is beetle black in 
all sections, showing as little trace of purple barring as possible ; 
they are a closely feathered bird and their feathers should be 
smooth on the surface. Comb should be large and have six dis- 
tinct points. Wattles should be in proportion to size of comb; 
ear lobes white; dark colored legs and pinkish-white skin. 

WHITE MINORCAS. 

The Whites are identical to the Blacks in all but weight which 
is- one pound less in cocks and hens and cockerels and pullets. 
They are not bred so extensively as the Blacks but have all their 
good qualities and to those who wish a white bird they prove 
great money makers. They make an ideal bird for breeders 
who are compelled to keep their birds on alkali soil as their legs 
are of a color that can not be faded by soils or weather. 

BLUE ANDALUSIANS. 

California is known the world over as the American home 
of the Mediterranean class; her Leghorns, Minorcas and Span- 
ish have been praised by the best poultry judges the world af- 
fords, but for some unaccountable reason California Andalus- 
ians have had little notice. This is undoubtedlv because no 



116 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

California Andalusians have been shown at the big Eastern shows, 
and we predict that when some enterprising California Anda- 
lusian breeder takes a string to New York, Boston or Chicago 
there will be a stir among the Eastern Andalusians breeders. 

California breeders of Andalusians have made the most 
of their favorable climatic conditions, and we feel sure that no 
other State in the Union can show so many really top-notch 
Blue Andalusians as California. 

A well-marked typical Blue Andalusian is hard to beat 
for either beauty or utility, and we have never met a breeder 
who gave them a place in his yards that was not enthusiastic 
over both their beauty and money-making qualities. The An- 
dalusians should have been produced on American soil, as it is 
the only variety in the standard carrying the national colors — 
red, white and blue — red in face, comb, wattles and eyes, white 
ear lobes and blue plumage. 




standard Blue Andalusians. 

Their origin dates back to the eighteenth century, when 
they were first introduced into Great Britain from Andulusia, 
a province in Southern Spain. It is a disputed question as to 
their blood make-up, some contending that they were the re- 
sult of a mixture of White and Black Minorcas, while others 
claim that they were bred long before either of these two breeds, 
and that the Minorca is an offspring from the Andalusian. We 
are inclined to think that this latter is the more correct of the 
two theories, but we know that during latter years the Minorca 
cross has been used, in some strains, to increase the size. This 
was many years ago, and the birds as bred today show none of 
the earlier crosses, and possess a type distinctly their own. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 117 

ANCONAS. 

While this variety has only recently been admitted to the 
American Standard, and is as yet only found in limited num- 
bers in this country; they have been popular in England for 
years and it is only a matter of time when they are sure to be- 
come one of our most popular egg farm breeds. 

"They are a handsome black and white mottled fowl, ap- 
proaching the Leghorn in shape, with golden yellow shanks and 
beaks, large, bright-red single combs, and white ear lobes. They 
have a wild, peculiar expression, and are as beautiful and in- 
teresting as useful. As early as 1852, as appears from a table 
in the English Agricultural Gazette, four birds of this breed pro- 
duced in twelve months 928 eggs, or 232 for each hen, a record 
which if correct, puts in the shade on any of our present breeds 
or strains. They have always had the reputation of being won- 
derful layers of' medium sized eggs weighing more than those 
of nearly any breed irrespective of size. In the - Government 
Experiment Station in N. S. Wales they have surpassed all 
other breeds as egg producers. They are short and stout, ex- 
tremely hardy, of rare beauty and peculiar attractiveness, and 
are much admired by those "who know," both for utility and 
exhibition purposes. 

The young exhibitor should be careful how he mates his 
birds if he wants to breed something worth showing. The cock 
should be darker than the Standard requirements, and the hens 
a good medium shade of under color and quills and fluff down 
to the skin should be black and not white, which is so often seen 
in inferior specimens. The black should be glossed with beetle 
green and the spots on the shanks distinct. The comb must be 
of medium size with 5 serrations, and it is to be hoped Ancona 
breeders will not adopt and judges will not encourage or permit, 
the huge beefy comb of the Minorca type which is quite out of 
keeping with the general character of the Ancona. The face, 
except the ear lobe itself, must be a sound bright red free from 
any suspicion of white. Anconas carry their tails rather higher 
than most birds, but a tail that is held over the back, squirrel 
fashion, is positively objectionable and should be avoided. 
The white mottling should be as clear and distinct as possible 
and free from any slatey tone. 

The eggs of mature Anconas of the original imported stanip 
are as large as those of the Minorcas, averaging two ounces in 
weight. Frequently seven eggs weigh a pound. 

The Ancona chick grows with amazing rapidity, and is 
very precocious and independent when reared by artificial means. 
I think that they learn to eat sooner than those of other breeds. 
They require plenty of run, and at the age of seven or eight 
weeks the sexes should be divided. 

Whether considered as a utility or an exhibition bird the 
Ancona with proper attention is one of the most popular and 
profitable breeds. 



118 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

. HAMBURGS. 

These are in what is termed the Dutch Class which com- 
prises Golden and Silver Spangled, Golden and Silver Penciled, 
White and Black Hamburgs. 

The Silver Spangled variety is the most popular in this 
country and, while they are a small framed, short legged bird, 
they lay a good sized egg and their egg laying records have never 
been surpassed by any other standard variety. 







Silver Spangled Hamburg Hen. 



As a beauty breed they are without a peer, with exceedingly 
gracefiil type and a color very exact in its design (this applies 
to all the varieties in the class). The general markings on both 
male and female is a clear, silvery white, free from mossing or 
lacing, each feather ending with a large, black spangle which 
should be in proportion to the size of the feather. 

All of the varieties in the Hamburg family make excellent 
egg farm birds and those who admire these beautiful little birds 
will make no mistake in taking them for their money-makers. 

THE GENERAL PURPOSE BREEDS. 

Under this head come the varieties that are neither very 
large nor very small in frame; that are not non-sitters but lay 
eggs enough each year to make them profitable as egg produc- 
ers. The advantages in breeding the all-purpose breeds is that 
they can be turned to profit in a number of different ways. The 
pullets make profitable egg producers being specially valuable 
as winter la^'^ers when eggs command the best prices ; at the end 
of their usefulness as egg producers they can always be turned 
into money at good prices, for table purposes (hens of this class 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



119 



average 12 cents per lb. in the California markets). The cock- 
erels and culls mature early and are always saleable at fancy 
prices for meat. Then there is the demand for well marked 
birds for breeding purposes, which is increasing each season and 
promises to tax the production of California standard poultry 
plants for years to come. The varieties that comprise the gen- 
eral purpose classes are the Barred, White, and Buff Plymouth 
Rocks; Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Partridge; Silver Penciled 
and Columbian Wyandottes; Rhode Island Reds and Buff, Black 
and White Orpingtons. 

PLYMOUTH ROCKS. 

The weight of all Plymouth Rocks are as follows : Cocks 9>^ 
pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 7;^ pounds, pullets 6)4 pounds. 
Head is of medium size with a fairly broad crown, beak is stout 
and well curved, eyes are medium and clear rich bay in color, 
comb should be set firmly on the head, straight and upright, 
and should be in proportion to the size of the specimen, neck 
of medium length, arched, tapering, with abundant hackle to 
the shoulders, back is broad, of fair length with a concave sweep 




Pair of California Bred Barred Rocks. 

to the tail, breast is deep and well rounded, body of medium 
length, full and compact, wings of medium size, well folded, tail 
not too long and fairly well spread, carried in such a manner 
as to be on an apparent angle with the back, legs and toes of 
medium length and straight, and bright in color. 

The Plymouth Rocks are pre-eminently an all-purpose 
breed. They are not only great layers of good sized brown eggs, 
but they take high rank as meat producers also. For egg-farm 
purposes it would be difficult 'to name a breed combining great 



120 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



laying ability with meat producing qualities in so high a degree, 
and they are a most satisfying bird in every sense of the word. 
The Plymouth Rock is a "made" breed, and originated in a 
cross of an American Dominique cock on black Java hens. The 
"Cuckoo" marking of the original Plymouth Rock was received 
from the Dominique male, and the size, station, single comb, 




standard Barred Plymouth Rock Hen. 

etc., from the dam. It is practically certain that the blood'of 
other breeds has now and then been introduced into the Ply- 
mouth Rocks, which has given them size, type, greater uni- 
formity of plumage and the desirable yellow beak and legs. 
Their remarkable hardiness is one of their strongest claims to 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 121 

popular favor; being an American breed, accustomed for many- 
generations to the extremely changeable and trying New Eng- 
land climate, and being thoroughly acclimated, they would be 
placed among the very first for hardiness and vitality. Writ- 
ing of them nearly twenty years ago, the American Poultry Yard 
said: "The perennial popularity of the Plymouth Rock is 
something wonderful to those who do not know its real merits, 
but to those who do, to those who know that it is hardy, healthy, 
vigorous, i)rolific, excellent for the table and thoroughly adapted 
to the requirements of an American market and an American 
climate, there is nothing wonderful at all." 

THE BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS. 

%*'"■ The Barred Plymouth Rocks, the original of the several 
varieties of Rocks, are the most popular and most widely bred 
variety of fovvls in the world today. They enjoy the distinc- 
tion of being the first breed of domestic fowls produced in America 
and their emmently practical qualities have won for them and 
their sterling merits have held a place in the very front rank 
of popular favor; they are noted for being bred by a greater 
number of persons and in greater numbers than any other one 
variety of fowls. " ;, 

' ' The Barred Plymouth Rocks commend themselves to the 
lovers of useful breeds. Of all our domestic fowls, this breed 
stands the highest for general purposes. They almost vie with 
the Asiatics in size, the Leghorns in egg production, the Dork- 
ings in quaUty of flesh and the Dominiques in hardiness and 
adaptation to climatic changes. They combine more useful 
qualities than any other breed known to us, and fill the void 
between the size and weight of the Asiatics and the European 
fowls." 

The Plymouth Rock is a product of American skill and 
breeding, and there is no other variety we can put on the mar- 
kets of the world with so much pride, and none other is received 
at our shows by foreign fanciers with so much favor. They 
have taken their place at the front without need of booming, 
and today stand acknowledged without many equals, as one of the 
best general -purpose fowl. They are rapid growers and make plump, 
juicy broilers at from eight to twelve weeks old. They have 
no successful rival among the pure breeds as a market fowl. 
They are great favorites with farmers and market men, who 
breed this variety more extensively than all other pure breeds 
combined. The popularity of the Plymouth Rock as a fan- 
ciers' fowl has never been reached by any other breed. Its 
popularity is based on its practical utility worth, and as a prac- 
tical fancy fowl, the Barred Plymouth Rock has come to stay. 
They are excellent all the year round layers, and will lay as many 
eggs as any breed that incubates and rears its young. In some 



122 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



of the smaller breeds we may get better layers but less size. 
The larger breeds give us no more eggs, if as many, and are 
later maturing and lack the sprighthness and elasticity of move- 
ment so much admired in the Plymouth Rock. The Barred 
Plymouth Rock class at our American shows is nearly always 
the largest, and the birds usually command a higher price than 
other American breed, which proves their sterling merit. 

New breeds have come and gone, but the Barred Plymouth 
Rock with its good qualities remains invincible. They are 




standard Barred Plymouth Rocks. 

practical fowls, well suited to the wants and conditions of those 
who desire eggs, meat and feathers combined in one breed. 

The general verdict of Plymouth Rock breeders can be 
encompassed in the words of a noted fancier and judge. "The 
Plymouth Rock is, beyond all question, the best general-pur- 
pose fowl of all the breeds before the public. They have been 
before the public many years, have borne the competition of 
other fowls, have been subjected to every test that fowls could 
be subjected to, and have come out of all these trials still as 
much praised and as much liked, both by the fancier and gen- 
eral public, as when they were first known. Two things are 
demanded of the perfect fowl — a large amount of good meat 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



123 



when on the table, and a large. laying capacit3^ It is safe to 
say that no other breed combines these two qualities as well as 
the Plymouth Rock. There may be hens that will lay more 
eggs, though we doubt it. Taken weight for weight, we have 
never seen the fowl that could equal the Plymouth Rocks, and 
certainly no fowl surpasses them for table use. They are a 
beautiful breed, combining with their large size, beauty of car- 
riage to a degree not common with fowls. The only fault that 
can be found with them is the tendency to breed back to show 
some of the characteristics of the breeds from which they are de- 
rived; but those showing only the best. points should be kept for 
breeding purposes. For the farm no fowl is equal to the Ply- 
mouth Rock." 

WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS. 

The newer varieties of this favorite breed, while unable to 
usurp the popularity of their older relative, the Barred, have 
won their way into the hearts of poultrymen as being a general 
purpose fowl which combines good practical and fancv qual- 




White Plymouth Rocks. 



ities. When they made their first appearance there was a great 
stir among poultry fanciers,' and we are glad to note that the 
stir has increased with the improvement of the variety. We 



124 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

believe there are more White Rocks being bred and sold than 
there are of any other variety of Plymouth Rocks. There is 
simply an enormous demand, and price seems to cut little fig- 
ure so long as the desired variety can be furnished. We believe 
that the causes for this wide spread popularity may be found in 
the facts that the Whites are more easily bred true to color, 
mature more quickly, are good la^'-ers, and their white plumage 
adds one cent more per pound to their value for market poultry 
over the price paid for colored breeds. The feathers from a 
well-bred White Plymouth Rock cannot sometimes be told 
from the feathers of the Embden goose, and the market value 
of white feathers is higher than that of colored ones. 

The White Plymouth Rock is now bred by all up to date 
breeders, is larger in size than the other Rock varieties and while 
it does not injure their fancy points nor their egg production, it 
does improve the quality as a market fowl. We have found 
the chicks of this variety to be much hardier, quicker to ma- 
ture, especially so when one considers their remarkable size at 
maturity. By breeding from selected females that were above 
standard weight, with good deep breasts, broad backs, short 
tails and low combs, one can succeed in getting much larger- 
sized fowls which lay a larger egg and the egg production will 
not be injured in any way." 

BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS. 

This variety has all the good qualities of their Barred and 
White cousins with the added beauty of the golden buff plum- 
age. A flock of standard Buff Rocks, with their beautiful golden 
buff plumage, bright yellow legs and beaks makes a beautiful 
sight and with great utility qualities added to their beauty it 
is a matter of surprise that they are not more extensive!}" bred 
in California. 

WYANDOTTES. 

Standard weights: Cocks ^% lbs.; hens 6>^lbs.; cockerels 
7>^ lbs. and pullets 5)^ lbs. This breed originated and has been 
developed by the American poultry breeder. In size it is about 
half way between the heavy Dark Brahmas and the Hamburgs 
the blood of both these breeds having been used in the earlier 
strains of the original variety, the Silver Laced. They are 
ideal as the all purpose fowl both for the table and as producers 
of good sized brown eggs. 

This breed has a lype peculiarly its own. In shape they 
are all that is best in domestic poultrydom, broad backs, deep 
well-rounded breasts, set well down to the ground on well de- 
veloped thighs and stout legs. They are ideal for the small 
breeder who is compelled to keep his fowls on limited quarters 
and at the same time some of the largest and most successful 
extensive poultry plants are stocked with this all-round breed. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



125 



The breeder has a wide range of color markings to choose 
from in taking up Wyandottes and as they all possess the same 
qualities as regards utility, it is simply a matter of choice of the 
color one wants and admires most. In all the varieties in this 
class one will find plenty of study and interesting matters of 
breeding to solve aside from the watching and selecting for the 
utility qualities. To those who admire a closely built, well-rounded 
plump bird, valuable both for meat and for filling the egg basket 
we can heartily recommend any variety of the Wyandotte family. 

LACED WYANDOTTES. 

There is a peculiar fascination about the production of 
Laced plumage. Nothing is harder to produce than a speci- 
men carrying true open centered black laced feathers from head 




Silver Laced Wyandottes. 



to tail. When we say true we mean absolutely clear open cen- 
ters. Many birds in both the Silver and Golden Laced Wyan- 



126 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



dottes, will look good in the pen, but when examined show a 
fine black or brown penciling, which later develops into larger 
lines and destroys the bird as a show specimen or for the breed- 
ing pen. Many flocks have been ruined by the use of pullets as 
breeders that have this defect which is overlooked by the 
breeder. 

There are two recognized varieties in the Laced Wyandotte 
class, both carrying the same general standard requirement. 




silver Laced Wyandotte Hen. 

with the exception of the color, which in the Silvers is described 
silvery white laced with lustrous black. In the Goldens, Golden 
bay is substituted for white. The disqualifications in both vari- 
eties are as follows : Solid white ear lobes ; combs not rose ; 
shanks any color but yellow, any feather or down on shanks or 
feet, or evidence of feathers having been removed. Absence 
of spike in comb. Standard weights are : Cocks, 8^ lbs. ; cock- 
erels, 7^ lbs. ; hens, 6J/2 lbs. ; pullets, 5^ lbs. Head should 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. ' 127 

be round in appearance, with a broad crown; beak short with 
nice curve ; the comb, rose, lying close to the head, covered with 
small points terminating in a small spike at the rear; neck 
should.be short, with flowing hackle in male, and well developed 
in female; color of plumage should be silvery white (or golden 
bay) striped in center with black. Back sho'uld be very broad, 
rather short, and well coupled up flat at shoulders with w^ell 
developed saddle in males (with same color as hackle) and slight 
cushion in females; breast well developed with a broad, deep 
appearance; wings, primaries, black, the outer edge with white; 
secondaries, black with outer half of lower web white coverts, 
the upper web black, the lower web white with a narrow black 
stripe along the edge, which widens as it reaches the tip, forming 
a double bar of laced feathers across the wing. Tail, lustrous 
black. 

_ Laced Wyandottes are all good layers, and are very su- 
perior as table fowls, reaching the fryer age earlier than anv 
other of the American class. Any one wishing to get a bird 
that combines beauty and utility can make no niistake in taking 
up these splendid birds. 

WHITE WYANDOTTES. 

Every variety of standard poultry has a distinct type which 
separates it from all other varieties, and can be seen at a glance 
when once impressed upon the mind's eye. Shape and type of 
the Wyandotte family is very marked and distinct from all 
other types and while many will tell you that a Rock and a 
Wyandotte look alike except in a matter of comb, there is a 
marked difference in these two types, and any Wyandotte breeder 
will pick out a Wyandotte shape from a pen of Rocks, no matter 
what kind of a comb the bird is wearing. Of course, there are 
many so-called Rocks with Wyandotte shapes and perhaps 
more Wyandottes with Rock shapes. This is especially true 
with the Wyandottes, as the male birds seem to have a tendencv 
to show the longer back and length of legs and shanks of the 
Rocks, and as back and legs make up a large part of the 
type form of the Wyandotte this is a bad defect. The true 
Wyandotte should be a bird carrying a broad crown, medium 
length of neck, well coupled up with the shoulders, a back not 
too long from the shoulder to center of back, with a cushion 
just between the Cochin and the Rock, a tail not too long in 
feather, well spread at the base and not showing the pinched 
appearance of the heavily feathered Cochin; fluff should be 
more abundant than on the Rock, and should give the howk 
and upper shank the appearance of being rather short and well 
rounded out, the breast should be full and deep, running down 
straight from the wattles and giving the bird the appearance 
of a full-breasted, well-rounded-out specimen, the shanks or 



128 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

lower legs should be set well back on the bird, and not too long. 
The whole symmetry of the Wyandotte should be that of a 
plump, well-rounded-out and not too closely feathered bird. 
The American standard for White Wyandotte is in substance 
as follows: In males: The head should be round, short and 
rather broad, and snow white* in color. The beak, should be 




California Bred White Wyandotte Pullet. 

well curved and stout, in color a bright yellow. Wattles med- 
ium in length, fine in texture, well-rounded. Ear-lobes, well de- 
veloped, smooth and bright red in color. Neck should be short, 
well arched with abundant flowing hackle. Back short, broad 
and flat at the shoulders. Saddle broad, full and rising with a 
concave sweep to the tail. Breast, broad, deep and fully de- 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURB. 



129 



veloped. Fluff full feathered and well rounded. Tail carried 
fairly upright, sickles of medium length, gracefully curved over 
the tail, the ends projecting slightly. Legs and toes — Thighs 
short and well spread, covered with soft feathers. Shanks 
rather short and stout, free from stubs and feathers. 




Standard White Wyandotte Male. 



In females: The shape description is practically the same. 
The tail in females is described as well developed, well spread 
at the base and carried less upright than in the male. The 
color in both male and female should be white throughout, in- 
cluding the quill, which should be as white as the web of the 
feather. The color of eye in both male and female should be a 
bright bay, and this section should be carefully watched, as 



130 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



many strains of White Wyandottes throw that is known as Ught 
eyes, and a good eye materially helps the appearance of the bird. 
Disqualification of White Wyandottes: Solid white in 
ear-lobes; combs other than rose or falling over to one side; or 
so large as to obstruct the sight; shanks other than yellow in 
color; any stubs or feathers on shanks or feet or unmistakable 




standard White Wyandotte Hen. 



Ab- 



indications of feathers having been plucked from same, 
sence of spike in comb. 

There are three vital points to be considered in the breed- 
ing of White Wyandottes, first to get the proper type which 
must come largely from the hen, second to get the pure white 
plumage which must be obtained to a large degree through 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 131 

the male, and third to get the low, welJ set properly pebbled 
comb. The comb should not be too large yet should coveJ 
the head and lay close to the crown and back of the head with a 
good medium length spike. This spike should be in propor- 
tion to the size of the pebbles on the comb, and should go to 
make up the well-rounded-out bird. If these three points are 
followed in breeding, the result will be a well balanced flock of 
good youngsters. The utility qualities of the White Wyan- 
dottes are too well known for us to add much to their already 
.splendid reputation as the ideal money maker of American 
poultry culture. White Wyandottes are especially adapted 
to the California, climate, and are each year growing in favor 
with California breeders. No breeder can make a mistake in 
taking up this ideal broiler and egg producing variety. 

BUFF WYANDOTTES. - 

This mepaber of the Wyandotte family is- having quite a 
riin in Califorriia and .are proving great favorites with all who 
bfeed them. They combine attractiveness with great prb- 
du:cing qualities and like the other members of this popular 
family are hardy and fast growers. 

In general type the BufE's are like the other Wyandottes 
and in color are a beautiful golden buff in all sections. 

PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTES. 

In no other branch of live stock husbandry is the demand 
for a combination of pleasing appearance and utility so marked 
as in the breeding of standard poultry. The so-called "fan- 
cier" has not only developed the fancy points of modern do- 
mestic poultry, but is responsible for their increased pro- 
ducing qualities as well. The fancier must have a bird of beauty 
in order that he may have an incentive to improve and perfect 
them; at the same time, the modern fancier is intensely prac- 
tical, and a variety with only beauty to recommend it no longer 
interests him. It is this practical trait that has brought out 
the many new varieties with money-making qualities, carrying 
the color and markings of some of the older varieties that were 
beautiful in appearance, but lacking in utility qualities. A case 
in point is the subject of this article — the Partridge Wyandotte. 
No more beautiful bird was ever produced than the grand old 
Partridge Cochin, but with their massive size and over-abund- 
ance of feathers, they were neither profitable as an egg fowl, 
or for table purposes. Naturally their color was much admired 
by the American fancier, and in order to retain this color it has 
been produced on the type and make-up of the all-purpose 
Wyandotte, the result being the Partridge Wyandotte of today. 

Of the true W5^andotte type, they are, like the rest of that 



132 



CALll-ORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



family, an all-purpose fowl, averaging from 150 to 185 eggs per 
year, and producing a large part of these during the winter 
months. They are splendid table fowls, fast growers, and quick 
featherers. It is on color that their admirers especially recom- 
mend them for the California climate. In this country of ever- 
lasting sunshine the Partridge Wyandotte will come through 
the long spring and early summer to the moulting time without 
apparently showing the eifects of the rays of the sun on their 
plumage. This undoubtedly proves that they are adapted to 
this climate, and is a good point in their favor, both from a 
utility and fancy point of view. Their beauty is unquestioned, 
even by those who do not breed them, and have their favorites 
in other varieties. The females are of especial beauty, with 




Partridge Wyandottes. 



black penciling on a ground color of mahognay red; the males 
with rich red hackles and saddles, striped down the center with 
metalHc black stripes, also make a striking appearance. The 
Wyandotte shape is sufficiently striking in itself to attract ad- 
miration from poultry lovers, and when clothed in this mag- 
nificent plumage, it makes a fancier's bird par excellence. 

The disqualifications are: Ear lobes more than one- 
half positive white; shanks other than yellow or dusky 
yellow in color. Any feather or feathers on shanks, feet 
or toes are unmistakable indications of feathers having 
been plucked from same. Combs without spike; wry 
tails and crooked backs. The males should weigh, cock ?>yi 
pounds, cockerel 7^ pounds; females, hens 6^ pounds and pullets 
5 yi pounds. The striking color points in the male are a low comb, 
hackles rich red, with black stripes through center of each feather, 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



133 



tapering to a point near the end of the feather, but not running 
into the red; saddle and back of same color; wings should have 
a well defined bar of black across the coverts, when wings are 
folded; body, breast and tail should be glossy black; under- 
color in all sections dark slate. The color of the female is hackles 
red, several shades lighter than the male, striped the same as 
the male, with the exception that penciling is allowed in the 
central portion of the feathers. The back, breast and wings, 
mahogany red or reddish brown, distinctly penciled with black; 
the penciling to conform to the shape of feathers; undercolor 
dark slate. The tail, black or brownish black, the two highest 
main tail feathers penciled as described in other sections. 

SILVER PENCILED WYANDOTTES. 

This variety is identical with the Partridge in all respects 
except color of plumage. In markings the silvers are silvery 
white and black instead of Mahogany and black as found in the 
Partridge. The Silver Penciled have made some wonderful 
egg records and by many who have been giving their attention 
to them the past few years, are considered the best layers of all 
the purpose varieties. No prettier bird can be found and the 
future for this variety is very promising. 

COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTES. 

This is the latest addition to the Wyandotte family and 
have only recently been admitted to the standard. They have 
been carefully bred however for the past ten years by .some of 




Columbian Wyandottes. 



the best breeders in the covmtry and are now on a very firm 
basis from a breeders standpoint. 



134 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

The Columbians are the true Wyandotte shape and in color 
are the same as the Light Brahma. 

That the Columbian Wyandotte has come to stay is at- 
tested b}'^ their great popularity, and the immense demand for 
stock and eggs. They are certainly handsome, fine table poultry 
and splendid layers, and seem to have as much if not more merit 
as a first-class all-round fowl as has any breed in America. 

ORPINGTONS. 

Standard weights: Cocks, lo lbs.; cockerels, 8^ lbs.; hens, 
8 lbs.; pullets, y lbs. 

The Orpington type is a broad and massive body set on 
nice short legs, and this type should be insisted upon, for this, 
combined with white skin of the finest texture and its white 
flesh and legs, make it the table bird par excellence. One could 
scarcely understand the great difference that exists between 
such a bird and one that had been bred regardless of table qual- 
ities ; it is a pleasure to fatten and dress them, and when it comes 
to the eating — well, there is all the difference in the world. 

The belief existed for many years, and does still in the 
minds and many today, that to produce an ideal table fowl the 
laying qualities have to be sacrificed. This, no doubt, was to 
a certain extent quite true, but careful selection has upset all 
this, and today there are flocks of Orpingtons that can beat 
the lighter varieties that are bred for eggs alone. Another ex- 
, cellent feature is that the Orpingtons do most of their laying 
during the season when eggs are scarce. 

Birds bred any time between the months of December and 
May will, with ordinary care, pay a good interest on capital ex- 
pended. The cockerels make excellent broilers and as fatted 
soft roasters they do equally well. 

BUFF ORPINGTONS. 

The first pair of Buff Orpingtons ever seen at a Poultry 
Show were exhibited at the Dairy Show, Islington, London, in 
October, 1894. Ever since that date this famous breed has 
never looked back and its supporters can be numbered by thou- 
sands. The merits and utility of the breed make it one of the 
most attractive and useful of all classes of poultry, combining 
the beautiful, popular buff color with admirable table and lay- 
ing qualities. We think it cannot be disputed that the Buff 
Orpington comes as near to the ideal fowl as it is possible to get 
one. We have bred most kinds of chickens but of them all the 
Buff Orpington has the warmest place in our hearts. The color 
is so pleasing to the eye and the carriage and symmetry are a 
joy to behold; added to this a more than usual intelligence and 
gentleness, makes it a pleasure to attend them. Feather and 
shape alone will not win praise from the real fancier, for he will 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



135 



ask, "Do they lay well, and how are they for eating- purposes?" 
The answer to these questions is what^ determines the lasting- 
popularity for a breed or variety. When eggs are scarce and 
most of the feathered world are taking the rest that nature has 
mapped out for them, you will find Airs. Buff Orpington busv 
and doing her bit for the tgg basket. Often she wilMay clean 
through the moult and come out the other end just as fresh and 
rosy and enter the new year with a zest that would do justice 
to a yearling. 

As a table bird the Orpington is only equalled bv the Games 
and Dorkings families; their delicious, finely grained rlesh, firm 
and succulent and affording large cuts off the long, deep breast, 
make them, with their white legs, a joy to the epicure. The 
cockerels can be brought to a nice plump condition at any ao-e, 
if ordinary care is given them and they look so much nicer than 
the thin, yellow-looking specimens of chickens one sees so often 
at the dealers. 




Buff Orpington Male. 

As a fancier's bird they are ideal. Being rather difficult 
to breed true, good specimens always bring good prices, and we 
feel safe in saying that this will hold good for many years to 
come. The following is our conception of an ideal bird; 

Male: A small, neat head, nice and full over the eye, tlie 
comb of medium size, evenly serrated, five points preferred and 
to be free from side sprigs and well set on the head, slightly fol- 
lowing the curve of the neck. A full, bright intelligent eye which 
should have a medium sized black retina and the iris of an orange 



136 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



red; wattles nicely rounded; ear lobes medium size and fairly- 
long, a gracefully curved neck and full hackle. The breast 
should be broad, deep and full, carried well forward and have 
a long straight breast bone. Short back with very broad should- 
ers, the saddle laising slightly with a good flowing hackle. Wings 
should be strong and carried close up; the skin white and thin 
and of a fine texture, with firm, white flesh; medium tail flowing 
and shghtly inchned backwards, short thighs, short, thick, clean 
white shanks, the less pink the better as this takes away from 
the beauty of the bird; four thick, short toes, well and evenly 
spread. He should be cobby, graceful and upright, weight 
nine or ten pounds when mature. Plumage close and broad, 
strong feathers. In color the male may be any shade of buff 
from lemon to a deep rich buff, avoid in the former paleness 
and the latter redness. The color should be perfectly uniform 




Buff Orpingtons. 

throughout allowing for a greater lustre on the hackle and saddle 
feathers and the wing bow. The comb, face ear lobes and wattles 
should be bright red. 

With regard to the females their characteristics should be 
very similar to the male, with a small cushion giving the back a 
nicely curved appearance, medium tail inclined backward and 
upward; weight seven to eight pounds when mature. In color 
they should be even all over with no white in hackle or flight 
and as much buff undercolor as possible. 

The beginner must not be discouraged if he cannot get 
birds as above described to start a breeding pen with for they 
are few and far betw^een. We believe there is a great future 
for the Buff Oi-pington and know of no better breed to recom- 
mend the beginner to take up for the demand is enormous and 
will be greater as the real qualities become better known. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 
WHITE ORPINGTONS. 



137 



The White Orpington is a variety that has recently come 
very much to the front. Their origin can be traced to 'several 
quarters; Mr. Cook claims to have made the variety by crossing 
White Leghorn cocks to Black Hamburg pullets and the pullets 
from this cross mated to White Dorking cocks, but we venture 
to say thatmne-tenthsofthe White Orpington stock of today 
could be traced to the new vSussex fowl, which are known as 




standard White Orpington Cock. 

Albions. For the development of this breed there is none de- 
serving of as much credit as Mr. Godfrey Shaw. This ^Gentle- 
man has worked hard and patiently in their behalf. The Alb on 
mbnefisasfollows.-plumage all white, white beak, white legs red 
face, ear lobes wattles and comb. The shape is the only thing ihat 
differs from the AVhite Orpington, which is Vather long^ much re- 



138 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



sembling the Dorking'. It will be seen that it would take but 
little trouble in selection to breed the Orpington shape to these 
birds, which of course, has been done. Probably there is no 
breed living that does as well in the fatting coop as the White 
Orpington. There are a few first crosses that may be preferred, 
but as a straight breed, the White Orpingtons are most excel-' 
lent. This we attribute to the fact of their having been bred 
for that purpose almost exclusively in Sussex. 

After breeding the White Orpingtons for a number of years 
we have no hesitancy in saying that they are one of the best 
layers in all-purpose classes. Their eggs are of extra size 
and many of our hens have been absolutely non-setters and 
quick growers. Smallness of bone is a desirable feature, for this 




White Orpington Coctc. 

of course makes the ideal table fowl. We have seen a cock that 
weighed about twelve and a half pounds, but ten is nearer the 
average. We trust the size of this breed will be kept where it 
is, for greater size would have a tendency to destroy the quality 
as a table fowl. To those breeders who love a white chicken, 
the White Orpington will well repay an investment, for thev 
are a pleasure to the eye and have such" good utility qualities. 
The chief difficulties to overcome in breeding exhibition speci- 
mens is shape and color. A nice, short back is hard to get ac- 
companied by good depth of body. In the male brassiness is 
giving trouble, and those that get there first with all white, good 
shaped birds will find quite nice figures awaiting them. In 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 139 

selection for breeder, type must be always borne in mind. A 
broad, deep breast, compact, massive and solid body and set 
low on nice, short legs. Plumage should be close and not carry 
too much fluff. All long backed and long legged specimens 
must be discarded. 

BLACK ORPINGTONS. 

This variety of the Orpington fowl being the earliest intro- 
duced is in consequence the most established as to color and type. 
As is generally known they were produced by crossing a large 
Minorca cock to Black Plymouth Rock sport pullets ; the pullets 
of this cross were then mated to a clean legged Langshan male, 
and the offspring carefully bred to large, deep-bodied, short 
legged birds. It is also beyond doubt that other methods were 
used to produce the Black Orpington, and we personally have 




Black Orpington Male. 

met two breeders who claim to have none of the original blood 
in their birds whatever. Be this as it may, all that one can say 
is that the originators are to be congratulated on giving to the 
world such a splendid specimen of the poultry kingdom, for a 
more noble bird it will be hard to find. On the utility side 
the}' have a grand record. In open competition they have 
beaten both the Mediterranean and heavy breeds, and al- 
ways make a name for themselves wherever shown. As 
an instance of this we would call our readers' attention 
to what has been done by this breed in Australia where 
it is safe to say the Black Orpington is first favorite. As 
a table bird they are very good indeed, the only detriment 
being their black shanks, which however, we find does not 
count so much in America as in Europe. For the size of 
the breed the Black Orpingtons are very active and if 



140 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

allowed to range will travel far from home in search of food. 
They are small eaters, will fatten readily if cooped and fed well. 
The eggs of a mature specimen will average seven to the pound. 
For the city lot they are an excellent variety to keep ; not show- 
ing the dirt like the lighter colors, they always look fresh and 
clean, and are a joy to behold. Few things look as beautiful 
as the Black Orpingtons when in condition. In breeding Black 
Orpingtons, to get good size the female should be fully matured, 
nice large hens, but not coarse in bone, carrying as much green 
sheen as possible. If the male lacks good color it is most import- 
ant that the hen should be strong in this point, it being useless 
to try and breed from male and females that show much purple. 
A good mating will insure the breeder getting good males and 
females and it is not at all necessary to run two breeding pens 
to produce show birds of both sexes. 





Black Orpington Hens. 

In general type the Blacks are the same as the Buff and 
White varieties. In color of plumage they should be glossy, 
metallic black, with greenish sheen. Purple barring should be 
avoided and is one of the main color defects found in this va- 
riety. 

RHODE ISLAND REDS. 

Known as the "farmer's fowl" and from the time of their 
origination bred along lines calculated to bring them to the high- 
est standard of commercial excellence, the Rhode Island Reds 
have become one of our most popular all-purpose fowls, not only 
with the commercial breeder but with the fancier as well. They 
enjoy the distinction of being the only American variety named 
for a locality, and developed in the place which gave its name. 
Another unique distinction of the Reds is that the fancier had 
no part in their "making." They were produced and bred for 
years in the locality where they originated, becoming practic- 
ally the common fowl of that district of Rhode Island, before 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



141 



they were recognized by the fanciers and the work of molding 
them mto shape as to type and color commenced. 

According to the best authority, their history dates back 
for more than fifty years. It is common knowledge among 
ttie older breeders that the Buff Wyandottes and Buff Plymouth 
Rocks owe much of their early make-up to these red fowls from 
Rhode Island. 

The Exhibition Rhode Island Red of today is a much finer 
and more fimshed fowl than the Reds bred on the farms around 
Ivittle Compton, Rhode Island thirty or even fifteen years ago 




Single Comb Rhode Island Reds. 

and have made great improvements over the first Reds exhib- 
ited. At the same time, all of the good qualities of the earlier 
birds have been retained and they are today as they were fifty 
years ago on the Rhode Island farms, great producers of 
eggs and the fastest growers of any of the middle weight vari- 
eties. In fact no other birds fit in between the small Mediter- 
ranean and the middle class American breeds as does this plumn 
active fowl. ' 

Several of the best breeders on the Pacific Coast were quick 
to see the great possibilities in these useful birds and have de- 
veloped them along their original lines of utilitv and beauty 



142 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

qualities, until today the Coast can boast of some of the best 
Reds in the United States. 

The standard weights are for cocks, SJ'^ lbs. ; cockerels, 
7^ lbs. ; hens, 6)4 lbs. ; pullets, 5 lbs. The disqualifications 
are, ear-lobes more than one-half white ; one or more white 
feathers in outer plumage ; shanks other than yellow or reddish 
horn. Their chief characteristics, as given in the standard, are, 
red color throughout, except black in the tail and wings of both 
sex; oblong shape bodies com.pact form and smooth surface 
plumage. 

BREEDS FOR MEAT PURPOSES. 

In this class we find breeds that are in the all-purpose class 
and others that have little to recommend them outside of their 
value for fattening and turnmg mto dressed stock. In the 
English class we find the Orpingtons and the Dorkings, two of 
the best meat breeds we have, and in the case of the Orpingtons 
especially adapted to California conditions. Both these breeds 
are good egg producers and profitable outside of their meat 
qualities. In the French class we find the Houdans with good 
egg records and splendid table cjualities while in the same class 
are the Crevecoeurs and La Fleche (these two very little bred 
in California and not particularly adapted to this climate) with 
little to recommend them besides their meat qualities. 

In the Indian Game we have a bird of not overly great egg 
producing qualities but one of the best as a table fowl and as a 
fancier's bird. 

The question of producing dressed poultry for the Cali- 
fornia markets has become a very prominent feature with Cali- 
fornia poultry breeders the past few years and therefore the 
matter of selecting a breed that will fill the bill for this purpose 
is an important matter to decide. With the many large tourist 
hotels in Southern California which demand the highest class of 
goods and are not particular as to the price they pay so long as 
the quality is right the selling of strictly first-class dressed poultry 
has become one of the most paying lines in the business. In 
order to furnish the quality demanded the breeder must have 
the breeds that have been especially selected and bred for meat 
purposes. We have given this branch of the busmess much 
thought and practical demonstration and can most heartily 
recommend it to those who have a liking for the strictly meat 
branch of the business or for those who wish to combine it with 
the other branches. 

ORPINGTONS. 

After a series of very careful and thorough experiments 
with the dififerent breeds as regards their value as dressed stock 
we are convinced that the Orpington family is without a peer 
for this purpose. This breed will put on two pounds of flesh 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 143 

under a forcing food while any of the other breeds are putting 
on one pound. The quality of the flesh is also superior to all 
the other meat breeds and brings a good advance in price in a 
market where quality is recognized. The general character- 
istics and all-round good qualities were covered in another part 
of this chapter under the head of general purpose breeds. 

DORKINGS. 

For years the Dorkings held the main place in England as 
the table fowl. Since the advent of the Orpingtons they have 
had to share this honor with them but still hold a firm place 
with the English poultry breeders. Dorkings have never 
been extensively bred in California but those that have been 
bred here have given good results. They are said to be the 
oldest fowl we have and some claim that their line can be traced 
back to the time of the Ark. The standard varieties in this 
class are White, Silver-Gray and Colored. All the Dorkings 
have low-set rectangular shaped bodies with deep keels and short 
legs. Their skin and flesh are white. The Silver and Colored 
Dorkings have a single comb and the Whites a rose comb. All 
three varieties have five toes. In color the Silver-Grays are a 
combination of black and grayish white while the Colored va- 
riety are a combination of black, light straw and slate color. 

THE FRENCH BREEDS. 

Since the French people are noted for their skill in produc- 
ing and preparing poultry for the market it is natural that we 
should find some of the best meat breeds produced on French 
soil. 

HOUDANS. 

Houdans are to France what the Dorkings and Orpingtons 
are to England. An American poultry breeder who recentl)'- 
made an extended visit to France reports that in all the large 
French markets at least two thirds of all the birds sold are Hou- 
dans. xHoudans are great egg producers as well as a fine table 
fowl, and it is a matter of surprise that they have not been more 
extensively bred in this country. The Standard calls the Hou- 
dan plumage mottled black and white, the white on tip of black 
feathers in proportion of about one tipped feather to three solid 
black ones. The crest should be round and not divided at the 
top. In type the Houdan resembles the Dorking. Toes, five 
upon each foot, straight except the fifth, which should be de- 
tached from the others and curved upward. Standard weights : 
Cocks 7 lbs.; cockerels 6 lbs.; hens 6 lbs. and pullets 5 lbs. 



144 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

CREVECOEURS AND LA FLECHE. 

Both these breeds are popular as table fowls in French, 
English and American markets. Their plumage is rich glossy 
black. The Crevecoeurs have large crests and beard and their 
standard weights are: Cocks 8 lbs. ; cockerels 7 lbs. ; hens 7 lbs. ; 
pullets 6 lbs. The standard weights for La Fleche is one-half 
pound additional to those called for in the Crevecoeurs. 

GAMES. 

All the varieties of Games are known the world over as 
great table fowls. A well bred Game is high stationed, closely- 
feathered and carrying an abundance of breast flesh. With 
the exception of the Indian Games they are not a large bird 
but dress up in better style than some of the larger birds. 

CORNISH AND WHITE INDIAN GAMES. 

By many the Cornish Indians are considered the best of 
all table birds. A bird of good size closely feathered with a 
massive breast and the best of flesh. Certainly the Cornish 




Cornish Indian Games. 



Indians have a just claim for first honors as a table fowl. The 
standard weights for both the Cornish and the White Indians 
are: Cocks 9 lbs.; cockerels 7 1-2 lbs.; hens 6 1-2 lbs.; pullets 
5 1-2 lbs. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



145 



BLACK BREASTED RED AND BROWN RED GAMES. 

These as well as all the Games crosses are excellent table 
birds, fairly quick growers and are hardy and easy to^raise. 




Black Breasted Red Games. 



THE ASIATIC CLASS. 

This class is made up of all the heavy weight varieties in 
theTpoultry world, comprising the Light and Dark Brahmas, 
Buff, Partridge, White and Black Cochins and Black and White 
Langshans. While these large birds are better suited for the 
colder climates of New England than the tropical chmate of 
California there are sections of this State that are especially 
suited to their production. In our high mountain valleys where 
zero weather is found the Brahmas and Cochins are at their 
best. In the case of the Langshans any section of the state 
is suited to their breeding, for while they are a large bird they 
are closely feathered and will do well in any climate. The va- 
rieties in this class, with the exception of 'the Langshans and 
Light Brahmas, are not noted as egg producers but they are the 
greatest of all breeds for the large soft roaster and make ideal 
capons. The Brahmas are the fowls mostly used in the great 
"roaster" markets at Philadelphia and Boston. 

COCHINS. 

The Cochin type is a deep bodied, massive bird all curves 
and rounded out lines; a bird with rather stately carriage, lean- 
ing sHghtly forward; slow in movement. They are a bird of 



146 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



profuse feathering, their plumage being loose and giving the 
appearance of even a larger bird than they really are. There 
are four varieties in this breed, Buff, Partridge, White and Black. 
The two latter are very little bred but the Buff and Partridge 
are popular the world over. The standard weight for Coch- 
ins is, cocks II lbs,; cockerels 9 lbs. ; hens 8 1-2 lbs. ; pullets 7 lbs. 

BUFF COCHINS. 

The oldest of our buff varieties and bred to great prefection 
in color qualities. They are fair layers and make excellent soft 

PARTRIDGE COCHINS. 

Here is one of the most beautiful of the standard varieties 
and has been bred to a high state of prefection by^the American 




Partridge Cochins. 



CALIPORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 147 

and British fanciers. Their color is the same as described in 
the chapter under the heading of Partridge Wyandottes. They 
are excellent winter layers and make extra fine roasters. 

LIGHT BRAHMAS. 

The most interesting of all the varieties in point of history, 
the largest of the poultry breeds, the grandest in appearance of 
all poultry dom, are some of the interesting points of the noble 
Light Brahmas. 

The early history of this variety is notable in that it made 
famous, and in turn was made famous by the two fathers of 
standard poultry culture in the United States, Mr. Philander 
WilHams and Mr. I. K. Felch, who are both enjoying a good old 
age, still interested in ther first love. 

Since its first introduction in America the Light Brahma 
has been a popular fowl. Many breeds and varieties have come 
and gone, but the old Light Brahma remains, the love and pride 
of a host of fanciers and the mainstay of a large number of market 
poultry men. 

As an exhibition fowl, the Light Brahma occupies a prom- 
inent place. This large, massive bird, beautiful in its color 
markings of pure white and black; is very attractive in the pen. 
In New England its popularity is the greatest, both as a fanciers' 
and utiHt}^ fowl. It has been truly said there is a time in the 
life of every fancier when he has a desire to breed the Light 
Brahma. There is a pleasing personality about the Light Brah- 
ma — stately and majestic and easy repose. 

. As an egg producer the breed holds an enviable record. 
This fowl produces a majority of its eggs in the cold months, 
when the product commands the highest market price. Many 
fail in egg production with these fowls because of a lack of knowl- 
edge as to how to properly feed. An overfed Brahma hen is 
an idler and is unproductve. As soft roasters no other breed 
or variety can equal the Brahma, nor are in such demand in the 
best markets of the country. 

It can be stated as a fact that the latter day Cochanizing 
of the Light Brahma by many breeders has impaired the laying 
power of the breed where so bred. Mr. Felch and Mr. Williams 
and a number of other friends of the breed have strongly op- 
posed this action, and have retained the Brahma in its true form. 
This Cochanizing of the breed has, too, affected it as an exhibi- 
tion bird. The West will have none of the Cochanized stock. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS. 

Standard weights of Light Brahmas: Cock, 12 pounds; 
cockerel, 10 pounds; hen, 9 1-2 pounds; pullet, 8 pounds. 

Disqualifying weights: Cock not weighing nine pounds; 
hen not weighing seven and one-half pounds ; cockerel not weigh- 
ing seven and one-half pounds; pullet not weighing six pounds. 



148 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



In shape the head should be moderate in size. The pea 
comb should be small, setting firmly and evenly on the head, 
lower and narrower at front and rear than in the center. It 
has the appearance of three small single combs joined together 
at base and rear, the longest and highest in the middle, each 
evenly serrated. The serrations of the front and rear are smaller 
than those in the middle. " The breast should be full and prom- 
inent ; the back short and broad. Neck well arched with hackle 
abundant in the male, flowing well over the shoulders. Body 
deep and well rounded. This is very important. Wings small 
and carried rather high. Tail medium in size; in male carried 
well upright. In female tail carried high enough to continue 




standard Light Brahmas. 



the concave sweep of the back. The thighs must be stout and 
covered with soft feathers. Toes well feathered on outside. In 
color the Light Brahma is pure white and black in the body, 
breast and thighs. Under the wings it may be white, bluish 
white or slate. Wings, neck and tail are positive black and 
white. Hackle web white with a black stripe down each feather, 
half or more its length, tapering to a point near the extremity. 
The wing bows are white, except front, where some black is al- 
lowed. Primaries, black or nearly so, with white edging on 
lower edge of lower web. In the secondaries the lower portion 
of the lower web is white, the rest being black. Tail black. 
Sickle feathers glossy greenish black. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



149 



Standard weights of Dark Brahmas : Cocks, eleven pounds ; 
hen, eight and one-half pounds; cockerel, nine pounds; pullet, 
seven pounds. . , . . , 

Disquahfying weights: Cocks not weighnig nine pounds; 
hen not weighing seven pounds; cockerel, not weighing seven 
and one-half povmds ; pullet not weighing five and one-halt pounds. 

DARK BRAHMAS. 

The Dark Brahma should be identical in shape with the 
Light Brahma. In color the cock is silvery white, striped with 
black in upper part of body, including neck-hackle,- back and 
saddle. Breast, pure black. Wing bows, silvery white Pri- 
maries, black, except narrow edging of white on lower edge ot 




^^ 



standard Dark Brahmas. 

lower web. Secondaries, black, except lower half of lower web, 
which is white till near the end of feather ^H ere the white 
terminates abruptly, thus leaving the end of the feather black. 
Tail, glossv greenish black. 

In color the female is a pure steel gray. 

BLACK LANGSHANS. 

The standard weight of all Langshans is: Cocks, 9 lbs.; 
cockerels, 8 lbs.; hens, 7 lbs.; pullets, 6 lbs. The disquahfymg 
defects for Black Langshans are as follows: Specimens show- 



150 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



ing 3'ellow skin; and yellow showing in bottom of feetfany but 
single combs; white in any part of plumage one-half inch or 
more in length, except in leg or toe feathering. Cocks that 
weigh less than 9 lbs. ; hens weighing less than 6 lbs. ; cockerels 
weighing less than 7 lbs.; pullets weighing less than 5 lbs.; birds 
with shanks not feathered down the outer side; outer toes not 
feathered beyond the middle joint. 

The head of both male and female should be of fair size, 
with a broad crown; beak well curved, dark horn in color; comb 
single, of good size, perfectly upright, evenly serrated with five 
points; neck well curved, with flowing hackle in male and well 
developed- plumage in female; back, flat at shoulders with a 
rise from center to tail, male with abundant saddle feathers; 
wing of medium size, well folded and carried up close to the 




Black Langshans. 

body; tail, large, full, carried well up, but not too close tea 
perpendicular line at the junction of the tail and back; sickles 
long, extendig well beyond the main tail; coverts, long, the 
longer the better. The color of both male and female should 
be glossy, metallic black, with greenish sheen. Purple bars 
and tinge a bad defect. 

The Black Langshan has been rightly called the "Lordly 
Langshan"; no other standard fowl has the same graceful car- 
riage, or well-bred showy appearance. From his broad crown 
and well-proportioned head points to his beautiful fountain tail, 
the Black Langshan male is a sight to fill the heart of any fancier 
with delight, while the hens are equally attractive and the pre- 
possessing in appearance. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 151 

Naturally these fowls have found great favor with the fan- 
ciers both in this country and in England. 

Miss Coad, for many years one of the foremost fanciers 
and breeders of England, was the earliest importer and exploiter 
of Langshans, and to her able efforts Langshans became known 
and bred all over the world. Miss Coad produced a strain of 
high station, fountain-tail Langshans that set the type for mod- 
em Langshan breeders, and came to be known as the "Coad" 
type, which is now recognized as the standard the world over. 

It is an undisputed fact that the Black Langshan is one of 
the best layers of the larger breeds, and many contend that they 
will lay equal to the Am.rican class, and some of the other 
smaller varieties. As table fowls they are extra in quality with 
the desired white skin, plump heavy bodies; in fact» they are 
ideal as a soft roaster. 

WHITE LANGSHANS. 

White Langshans are identical with the Blacks in every- 
thing but color which is pure white in all sections. 

THE FANCY BREEDS. 

Under this heading we shall consider those breeds that are 
bred mainly for their .beauty, and while possessing many utility 
qualities are not bred to bring out these quahties but along lines 
to improve their appearance to the eye. In this class we have 
the Polish, of which the White Crested Black is the leader and 
the bantams of which the Black Breasted Red Games, vSilver 
Sebright and Buff Cochins are the most popular. All the Bant- 
ams are minature counterparts of the larger breeds from which 
they take their name. ^ _j 

WHITE CRESTED BLACK POLISH. 

The typical Polish must be of medium size with a large 
flowing crest, pure white in color, rising well in front so as not 
to obstruct the sight. The back should be of good length and 
the tail well spread. The comb is V shaped of small size, in 
fact , there is no comb at all the bird is preferred. The plum- 
age is black with a greenish luster, free from purple bars. 




Turkeys In California. 

VARIE^TIES. 

Bronze Turkeys are the largest, hardiest, and by far the most 
popular of the varieties. An adult cock sometimes weighs over 50 
pounds, though the Standard weights are much lower, i. e., adult 
cock 36 lbs. ; yearling cock 33 lbs. ; cockerels 25 lbs. ; hen 20 lbs. ; 
pullet 16 lbs. The Bronze turkey is more popular than all other 
varieties combined, in most sections where turkey culture is ex- 
tensively carried on. 

White Holland Turkeys are second to the Bronze variety in 
popularity in many sections. They are much smaller, the Standard 
weights being: Cock 26 lbs.; cockerel 16 lbs.; hen 16 lbs.; pullet 
10 lbs. Breeders of White Holland turkeys claim that they are 
much more docile and have less of the roving disposition of the 
Bronze, and are better adapted to close quarters or a narrow range. 




Bronze Turkeys. 

Narragansett Turkeys are often mentioned as the favorite 
variety with Rhode Island growers, but in a two days' trip through 
the best turkey growing section of that state with a friend a few 
years ago we found very few of them, both the Bronze and White 
Holland seeming more numerous. We did, however, see a few 
very fine specimens of the Narragansett. They are second in 
size, the Standard weights being : Cock 30 lbs. ; cockerel 20 lbs. ; 
hen 18 lbs. ; pullet 12 lbs. In color they are gray, the plumage 
having a black ground with each feather tipped with a gray band 
edged with black. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 153 

The other three varieties of the turkey are Buff, Slate and 
Black. All are quite rare in this country, and good colored speci- 
mens of the Buff and Slate varieties are very rare indeed. The 
weights for these three varieties are the same : Cock 27 lbs. ; cock- 
erel 18 lbs. ; hen 18 lbs. ; pullet 12 lbs. 

But whatever the choice of breeds, it is more important that 
we consider the matter of breeding stock. The common practice 
of killing or selling off all the finest specimens at holiday time, 
keeping over only the late or stunted ones for next year's breeders, 
tends to deteriorate the quality of stock as well as the robust vi- 
tality that is one of the greatest requisites in successful turkey 
raising. 

The earliest and thriftiest of the hen turkeys should be saved 
for breeders. These should be mated to two-year-old toms, giving 
each torn eight to ten hens. Gobblers are not really fully grown 
until 2i/> or 3 vears old, and are good breeders until 4 or 5 years 
old. 

The breeding turkeys should not be fed on corn alone during 
the winter or their eggs in the spring will lack vitality. A good 
share of the ill luck in rearing young turkeys comes from neglect 
of the parent stock during the months when they are idle. 

THE CARE OF YOUNG TURKEYS. 

No food need be given the young turkeys the first day, but 
the mother should be fed. If the nest is so situated that a small 
pen can be made in front of it, it is a good plan to let the brood re- 
main there quietly for some days. If the nest is not suitably lo- 
cated for this, the brood should be removed to a coop with small 
run attached. A coop with a board bottom is preferred, as the 
young turkeys are very susceptible to dampness, and a floored coop 
is dryer. 

The pen for a brood of little turkeys should be made of 
boards 12 to 16 inches wide, set on edge, and enclosing a space 
about, eight feet wide one way by twelve to sixteen feet the other. 
The little turkeys are at first much less active and rugged than 
little chickens, and should be confined to this pen for about ten 
days. It is better that, if possible, this pen should be on grass 
land, for little turkeys, like goslings, want green food from the 
start. If they cannot have a green run green food should be pro- 
vided. Grit and charcoal must also be provided, and lice must be 
kept down by dusting with an insecticide the same as with young 
chickens. 

Most authorities insist on the necessity of altogether avoiding 
dampness, keeping the young poults up while the grass is wet; 
but some of the most successful growers I have known let their 
turkeys range freely after they are strong enough, and say they 
observe no ill effects from such wettings as the chicks get. In- 



154 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

deed, their opinion is that this way of Hfe is much better than 
the coddh'ng methods. 

While the young turkeys are confined to coops the ground 
under them and the coop itself should be kept clean. For keeping 
ground clean shifting the coop is all that is necessary if there is 
opportunity to do that. The coop must be kept dry, as well as 
clean. In wet weather when the floor becomes damp, it should 
be cleaned daily, and a liberal sprinkling of dry earth, or fine dry 
litter be applied. 

By the time the young turkeys are two weeks old, if not be- 
fore, the pen will no longer restrain them. Their roving in- 
stincts become plainly manifest, and in a very short time after 
they begin to go over the low sides of the pen they will go over 
fences four or five feet high with equal ease, and begin to make 
quite a circuit in foraging. Whether with hen or turkey mothers 
they require a good deal of watching at this age. In fact, while 
on a good range the turkeys pick a considerable part of their liv- 
ing, and need be little expense for food until fattening time arrives. 
They require more or less watching throughout the season, and an 
essential factor in successful turkey culture is to have some one 
keep an eye on the flock almost constantly to see that they do not 
wander too far, are not overtaken by violent storms, or picked ofT 
one by one by their natural enemies. 

FEEDING YOUNG TURKEYS. 

We give herewith the method of feeding used by two of 
the leading turkey breeders of the country. Mr. Crangle gives 
only the feed used for the very young birds, while Mrs. Har- 
grave gives her method of feeding from the shell to the time of 
marketing : 

FOR YOUNG TURKEYS. 

After about 36 hours old, or after the hen leaves her nest, 
we feed for three or four meals equal parts of hard-boiled eggs 
and stale bread. After that mostly stale bread moistened with 
milk. For two or three weeks we give curdled milk to drink. 
After two weeks we mix a little red pepper with the bread twice 
a week. — Crangle. 

FOR TURKEYS FROM SHELL TO MARKET. 

I feed poults every two hours until about ten days old, giv- 
ing stale light bread softened in sweet milk (or water, squeezed 
dry, mixed with hard-boiled eggs, including shells finely broken. 
This food is alternated with bread and clabber cheese, oat flake 
and egg, or cheese seasoned with a little salt and pepper. After 
the little ones are about a week old I begin mixing a little whole 
or cracked wheat, Indian corn, Kafiir corn, or millet with the 
cooked food, and thus they learn to eat grain. Always try to 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 155 

feed no more than they will eat up clean each time. When they 
are about a week old I begin to drop the white bread, and give 
them instead what I call a brown light bread made the same as 
white bread, using one-half white flour (a cheap grade will do) 
and the other half about equal parts of shorts and bran, with 
a handful or two of cornmeal. The meal makes it crumble easily. 
The bread should be allowed to dry for a day or two before feed- 
ing; if fed fresh it may choke the poults. I gradually drop the 
white bread and eggs, and feed instead the brown bread and 
cheese. When about six weeks old they have become accus- 
tomed to the grain food, which, since they were three weeks 
old, has been kept by them in troughs in coops so constructed 
that the little turkeys can get in and the older fowls are kept out. 
By the time the poults are nine or ten weeks old I have dropped 
the soft or cooked feed to once or twice per day. By September 
the older poults are dependent upon grain food and range. For 
fattening I had good results with a mixture of grains propor- 
tioned as follows : Two bushels whole corn, two bushels cracked 
corn, one bushel oats, one bushel Kaffir corn. — Mrs. Hargrave. 

LICE. 

Like young chicks, poults are troubled more or less with 
head lice and mites. The treatment for these are the same as 
with the chicks, which is fully covered in the chapter on lice 
and mites. 

ACCOMMODATIONS FOR TURKEYS. 

The turkey is essentially an outdoor fowl. Like the goose, 
it will generally by preference remain outdoors in all weathers, 
though that a part of this preference is due to habit would seem 
apparent from the fact that in continued very severe weather 
when they cannot feed outdoors, they seem to appreciate shelter 
and a comfortable spot to feed in. I kept a few turkeys in a 
room in my stable one season, letting them run about the barn- 
yard and dooryard, but while the old birds seemed contented 
to keep within bounds, and were thrifty and bred well, they had 
to be driven into the shed nearly every night, and the young 
ones, after two weeks old were anywhere and everywhere but 
at home. 

Turkey growers generally provide roosting places for their 
turkeys outdoors in a sheltered place where the roosts can be 
high enough from the ground to protect them from marauding 
animals. The sheltered side of a barn or other outbuilding is a 
favored place for the turkey roost. Occasionally a high open 
shed is used. 

On most farms where turkeys are grown, the breeding stock 
is either not yarded at all, or yarded only during the breetling 
season, to prevent the hens straying away and hiding thci: nests. 



156 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



The hen turkey is very cunning in this matter, and I have knowrr 
of their going a mile or more from home to lay, going and re- 
turning daily, and taking many precautions to throw anyone 
following off the track. 

Some turkey growers yard their turkeys during the laying 
season. Some yard them until after the eggs have been laid 
each day, giving them liberty then, and of course seeing that 
they are back in the yard, and the gates closed, at nightfall. 
When turkeys are confined only during a part of the day, a yard 
50x100 feet will do for a flock of twenty hens or less. The 
fence, if of wire netting, need not be over 5 feet high. A few 
turkeys might be kept permanently in an enclosure no larger than 
this, but when that is done higher fences are necessary, for 
immature fowls and hens that are not laying fly much more freely 
than the mature hens do during the laying period. 




Ducks In California. 



If we can judge by the number of inquiries received asking 
for information on duck raising, the interest in this branch of 
the poultry business is on the increase in this part of the world. 
We hope this is the case, for Southern California, and in fact 
the whole Pacific Coast, is perfectly adapted to this branch of 
the business, and the demand for good ducks is always far below 
the local production. 

While there are fourteen different varieties of ducks de- 
scribed in the American Standard, breeders have settled down 




Pen of Young California Pel<in Ducks. 

to two varities — White Pekin and Indian Runners — for profit- 
able purposes. The Pekins are the recognized table duck, and 
the Indian Runners are the egg producers. In the matter of 
table ducks, the modern duck market calls for the production of 
"green" ducks, that is, of ducklings to be marketed at ten to 
twelve weeks of age. At that age they have frames almost as 
large as when full grown, and will dress four to six pounds 
each, five pounds being almost the average weight. The main 
profit in table ducks is undoubtedly in the green ducks,_and the 
duck specialists devote themselves to it exclusively. Pekin ducks 
are much easier to handle in large numbers and in limited quar- 
ters than chickens. They grow so much faster that the brood- 
ing problem is greatly simplified, and if conditions are all favor- 
able, and care anywhere near right, they are very free from 
disease. 

The Indian Runners are marvelous egg producers, and have 
become great favorites with all who have bred them in California. 
It is safe to say that they will average 200 to 240 eggs for each 
hen per year, and this is below the reports given by many breed- 
ers who have kept records on them right here in Southern Cal- 



158 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

ifornia. The eggs from these ducks are hardly distinguishable 
from hen's eggs, are of a pleasant rich flavor with none of the 
strong taste found in other" duck's eggs. Therefore Indian Run- 
ner eggs sell well in the market, and command as good, and 
sometimes better, prices than hens' eggs. It must not be un- 
derstood that the Indian Runner is undesirable for table pur- 
poses, for they are excellent for this purpose, but do not make a 
good green duck, hence they are not sought after by the table 
duck men. 




Indian Runner Drake. 

For growing the young ducks for market no water except 
for drinking purposes is needed. The ducks grow faster when 
kept from water. For the breeding stock, and for ducks grown 
for stock purposes, swimming water is not absolutely necessary, 
but results are generally more satisfactory if the ducks can have 
access to a stream or the margin of a pond or lake. Contrary 
to the common idea, ducks neither require nor thrive in damp 
quarters. Though they like to frequent streams and marshy 
places, they need well-drained ground to which they can go when 
tired of the water, and the house site should be on well-drained 
and if possible dry ground. 

Houses for ducks are built on the same general plans as 
those used for hen houses. Houses can be made of the cheapest 
material, and it is not necessary that they should be warm, but 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



159 



they should be as dry as possible, hence a good roof is desirable. 
A house used by many of the large duck raisers is i6 feet wide, 
20 feet long and 6 feet on the side and 8 to 9 feet in the middle. 
Through this house runs a passage way two and a half feet wide, 
and the house is divided off so as to accommodate a number of 
pens at one time. The fences for yards should be of wire. A 
fence two feet high will keep ducks in. A good plan is to make 
temporary fences, driving short stakes into the ground and at- 
taching the wire fencing to these with staples, using only two 
or three at each stake, and not driving them in tight. Ducks 
foul the ground very badly, and it is desirable to move them fre- 




Pekin Ducks. 

quently and turn over and plant the ground they have been run- 
ning on. As drakes are not as combative as cocks are, flocks 
large enough to require a number of drakes are generally kept 
together. Twenty-five or thirty ducks can be kept in a flock. 
For this number of ducks five or six drakes are needed. 

Successful breeders have found that ducks do best on soft 
food, and most of the largest breeders are feeding both their 
young and old birds on soft food exclusively. We give below 
the rations fed the breeding stock by four of the leading duck 
breeders in the United States: 

I. "Equal parts of cornmeal, wheat bran and low-grade 
flour, with about twelve or fifteen per cent, of animal food. One 
fourth of this food should be composed of vegetables cooked — 
say, small potatoes, turnips, etc., with all the green rye and re- 
fuse cabbage they will eat. Feed this mixture mornings and 



160 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

evenings, giving a little corn, wheat and oats at noon. Feed 
all the birds will eat up clean and no more." — James Rankin. 

2. "Equal parts cornmeal and shorts with ten per cent, 
beef scraps added. If green food is not available, add one-fifth 
cooked vegetables to the mash. Give raw vegetables at noon 
two or three times a week." — Weber Bros. 

3. "One-fourth cornmeal, one-fourth bran, one-eighth 
broken crackers, one-eighth gluten meal, one-eighth low-grade 
flour, one-eighth beef scraps. This mixture makes two-thirds 
of the mash, the other third being scalded green clover cut fine, 
and boiled potatoes mashed. The grain feed is mixed dry at 
first, and then the clover and potatoes added, and the whole mixed 
with hot water and fed warm. Feed all they will eat up clean 
with a relish. Allow no food to stand before them at feeding 
times." — Curtiss Bros. 

4. "Two parts bran, one part Indian meal, two parts cut 
clover or other green food. Ten to twelve per cent, of the whole 
to be best quality of beef scraps." — Pollard. 

5. "Two parts clover heads, boiled, two parts cornmeal, 
two parts middlings, two parts bran, one part ground bone." — 
McFetridge. 

Where a breeder wants to hatch only a limited number of 
ducklings, hens can be used to good advantage, but where a 
large number are to be raised, incubators and brooders are in- 
dispensable. When eggs are hatched under hens, give each hen 
nine to eleven eggs, according to the size of the hen and the 
eggs. Duck eggs vary in size, and some will allow the setting 
of nine, while others do not overcrowd the nest when eleven 
are given to the broody hen. 

When only a few ducklings are hatched at a time, hens are 
satisfactory as mothers, but if the number is great enough to 
use a brooder, it will be found a much more satisfactory method 
of raising them. The same general rules for running a brooder 
for chicks apply to ducklings. We give below rations for duck- 
lings used and recommended by the greatest of all modern duck 
raisers, Mr. James Rankin: 

"First week — Equal parts of cornmeal, middlings, crackers 
or stale bread, and green stuff; mix in a small handful of sand 
to each quart of food. Give occasionally bread soaked with 
milk for a change. 

"Second week — Four parts cornmeal, two parts wheat bran, 
two parts middlings, one part beef scrap, sand; mix with about 
one-third the quantity of green stuff. At about six weeks put 
ducks in fattening pens and feed two-thirds meal, the remainder 
about equal parts of bran, middlings and greens; add about 
twelve per cent, of the whole beef scraps." — Hallock. 

"First four days — Four parts wheat bran, one part corn- 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 161 

meal, one part low-grade flour, five per cent, fine grit. Feed 
four times a day what they will eat up clean. 

"From four days to three weeks — Three parts wheat bran, 
one part cornmeal, one part low-grade flour, three per cent, fine 
grit, five per cent, beef scrap, soaked. Finely cut green clover, 
rye or cabbage. Feed four times a day. 

"From three to six weeks old — Equal parts cornmeal, wheat 
bran and low-grade flour, ten per cent, beef scrap, three per 
cent. grit. Feed three times a day. 

"Eight to ten weeks old — One-half cornmeal, equal parts 
bran and low-grade flour, ten per cent, beef scrap, three per cent, 
grit; oyster shells and less green food. Feed three times a day. 

"The above ingredients should be made into a mash, and 
should be crumbly, not pasty. Proportions by measure, not by 
weight." 

Both old and young ducks need water constantly before 
them, and especially at feeding time, as they must wash all their 
food down with water. Dlicks drink even at night. It is best 
to use a drinking fountain that the ducks cannot get into and 
foul the water. Give a pen of ducks plenty of water fountains 
so that they will not crowd around one fountain ; especially is 
this bad with young ducklings, as they frequently injure one 
another in this way. 

The Standard weights for Pekin ducks are : Adult drake, 
8 pounds ; young drake, 7 pounds ; adult duck, 7 pounds ; young 
duck, 6 pounds. 

Standard weight of Indian Runner ducks: Drakes, 4^4 
pounds ; ducks, 4 pounds. 

Standard disqualification of Pekins: Bill or beak of drake 
marked with black; feathers showing any color other than 
white or creamy white ; twisted wings ; crooked backs ; awry tails. 

Standard disqualifications of Indian Runners: Claret- 
colored breast; blue wing bars; twisted wings; crooked back; 
awry tails. 



The Goose In California. 

Interest in goose raising is at present very slight in this 
state and the demand is considerably above the supply. 

No doubt interest in goose culture on a commercial scale 
could develop considerably before an over supply was created, 
but those to whom goose growing should appeal most at pres- 
ent are the many who might grow a few geese every year, either 
for home use or for a local market, almost without expense. 
Almost every farm has some land not used for any other purpose 
and not productive, that might be devoted to goose growing. 
On almost ever}^ farm a flock of geese, large or small, according 
to accommodations, might be kept on pasture with other stock. 




Geese thrive most readily and are least trouble to handle, 
and grown at least cost, when given good pasture, but they may 
be grown like ducks in close quarters if green food is liberally 
provided. This way of growing them is not recommended. I 
merely mention it as possible for those who would like to know 
something of geese, but have not good natural facilities for grow- 
ing them. 

Under favorable conditions geese are the easiest of all do- 
mestic fowls to handle. With good pasture provided with water 
they may be left to themselves half or more of each year. They 
do better, generally, if provided a little grain food to supplement 
what they get by foraging, but it is not regarded necessarv, and 
perhaps the majority of those growing geese give the old stock 
nothing during the pasture season, and feed the goslings only a 
few weeks. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 163 

THE BREEDS OF GEESE. 

Many geese found in this country are the common gray, 
gray and white, or white geese, not much larger than a large 
duck, and in a general way showing the same inferiority to the 
improved breeds of geese that common fowls of all kinds do to 
the well bred. 

Of pure bred domestic geese there are the following breeds: 
Toulouse, Embden, African, and China, or Chinese. Of the 
last named breed there are two varieties: Brown and White. 

GETTING A START WITH GEESE. 

If one wishes to grow more than a few goslings year after 
year the best plan is to begin with adult birds three years old 
or over. Geese do not come to full maturity until about three 
years of age, and rarely give at all satisfactory results until two 
years old. The young geese will lay and some of the eggs may 
hatch, but the goslings are apt to be weakly and not thrifty. 

Good stock of any of the improved breeds usually costs 
$3 to $5 per bird. It is better to purchase some months in ad- 
vance of the breeding season, as the geese will not breed well if 
moved just prior to the laying period. If stock has not been 
purchased early it is usually better either to let the matter go 
over for another season, or to buy eggs. In any case one must 
expect it to take several seasons to get a flock of geese estab- 
lished in new quarters, and breeding satisfactorily, for good 
breeders of mature age are not often offered for sale, and the 
young geese require two years, and sometimes more, before they 
produce well. Once established, however, a flock of breeding 
geese can be kept unchanged for quite a long period. The fe- 
males are said to be profitable up to ten or twelve years of age, 
and males to a little more than half those ages, say, six or seven 
years. 

From one to four females are mated with each male. Young 
geese are disposed to pair. As the ganders grow older they will 
usually serve more mates, but they do not copulate indiscrim- 
inately as fowls and ducks do. Each gander serves only his 
own mates, and an unmated goose in a flock in which all the gan- 
ders have other mates may be entirely neglected. For this 
reason goose growers often put an extra gander with the flock 
to pick up and mate with any neglected or discarded females. 
Usually when a gander and goose have mated once they are 
faithful to each other as long as allowed to remain together, 
and often refuse to take another mate for a long time after being 
separated. This trait makes it possible once the geese are mated 
to allow as many families as desirable to nm in one flock, even 
though they be of different breeds. 



164 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

HOUSES AND FENCES. 

Geese require very little shelter, and the heavier breeds 
are restrained by almost any sort of low barrier. 

A low rough shed open to the south will provide all the 
shelter needed, and it need not be much larger than will give the 
flock standing room under it. Sometimes they have to be con- 
fined at night for protection, but, as a rule, they can take care 
of themselves. 

CARE OF BREEDING GEESE. 

Geese breed best on pasture with streams or ponds access- 
ible. They require little grain if the pasture is abundant. If 
pasture is short it may be supplemented by grain and vegetables. 
In summer they should be fed mostly on vegetable food, cut 
clover, alfalfa, cabbage, beets, turnips, etc., with oats or barley 
and bran. Corn is generally too fattening, and most breeders 
are very sparing in feeding it. Herewith are given the rations 
of two well known breeders of geese: — 

I. — "Through the laying and breeding season, in addition 

to grass, they should be fed twice a day with shorts 

and corn meal, equal parts, thoroughly moistened with 

cold water, but not too wet lest it produce diarrhoea; 

• add ten per cent of beef scraps, or its equivalent." — 

RUDD. 

2. — "Take some boxes about eight inches deep, and put 
oats or barley in them. Place these in the pasture 
away from other fowls. There is no danger of over- 
feeding grain if the geese have pasture. Give corn only 
in coldest weather." — Newman. 
Geese usually begin laying in the winter, or in the early 
spring. When the goose is ready to lay she is apt to seek out 
a nest for herself, and having once selected a place is impatient 
of any interference with her laying habit. The goose, as a rule, 
looks for a somewhat secluded place, and as a pasture often 
furnishes few such places, keepers make a practice of providing 
nests that may attract the geese. An empty barrel placed on 
its side with a little earth in it to hold it steady and make a found- 
ation for the nest, then a little straw or hay added, is the usual 
nesting place furnished. Often the geese will ignore these and 
make their own nests right in the open. 

As geese lay but few eggs it is customary to take them 
away as laid during the first laying period, and give them to 
hens to hatch, or place them in an incubator, and not allow the 
geese to incubate until they have laid a second lot of eggs. 

hatching goslings. 

The hatching of goslings by natural methods, whether with 
hens or geese, differs little from the hatching of other fowls. 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 165 

The points of difference in hatching with hens are those which 
depend upon the size of the eggs and the length of the period 
of incubation. The eggs of the large breeds of geese are very 
large, and early in the season three will be found enough for a 
medium sized hen, Later when the atmosphere and ground 
are warmer more eggs may be given, but it is rarely wise to give 
more than five large goose eggs to a hen. The period of incu- 
bation being thirty days, approximately half as long again as 
the incubation period of hens' eggs, hens that are not in good 
condition and free from lice are likely to neglect or desert their 
eggs. Hence besides taking special care to use hens that are 
in good condition and to guard against lice, which multiply 
much faster on a hen late in a prolonged period of incubation 
than while she is active and robust, it is well to watch the hens 
very closely after the third week of incubation, and remove 
any that seem to be losing condition, giving their eggs to fresher 
hens. 

When geese are used for hatching they may he allowed 
twelve to fifteen eggs. Usually they must be set where they 
have been laying. Many growers simply leave the eggs of the 
second litter in the nest. 

Goose eggs can be tested from the fourth to sixth day, and 
the infertiles removed. Testing should always be attended to 
with the early hatches and under hens. With eggs set under 
geese late in the season it is not so essential, for the eggs 
usually run very fertile then, and as the incubating goose does 
not like interference it is as well to let her alone. 

FOOD AND CARE OF GOSLINGS. 

The first two or three days keep them in a warm place and 
give a little soaked bread and water. In nice weather turn 
them out in small enclosures which can be moved every day. 
After a week let them go. The first four or five weeks give noth- 
ing but stale bread occasionally, but always leave them at hberty 
to get all the grass or clover they want. Do not soak the bread, 
as they do not like it so well. After five weeks give a mash of 
two-thirds bran and one-third corn meal. To fatten — after 
six weeks, feed one-half bran, one-half corn meal; do not feed 
it sloppy. Never allow goshngs to go to the water until fully 
feathered, and then only let those go which are to be kept for 
breeders. 



Pigeons For Profit. 

A BACKYARD SQUAB PLANT. 

So many of the housewives are looking for something out 
■of the ordinary for Sunday dinners, the little luncheon in honor 
of the stranger within the gates, and other special occasions, 
that a flock of fine squab breeders is becoming almost a necessity 
to a family. There is nothing more delicious than a tender, fat 
squab, smoking hot, with a crisp piece of bacon broiled with it, 
and by giving the birds the proper care there is a sweetness and 
flavor to their flesh that no market bird will have. Another 
feature there is always a demand for good squabs at a high price 
for the table, or by the pair for squab breeders. With squabs, 
as with poultry, the common variety pays the smaller profit, 
the markets paying $1.75 a dozen in the summer and $3.00 in 
the winter for the common squabs, which are generally dark 
and scrawny, while a thoroughbred squab will be light, fat and 
better flavored. Another argument in favor of good stock is 
they breed much oftener than do the common ones and the 
markets will pay much higher prices for them. There are any 
number of good squab breeders, the working Homer being the 
leading favorite. They are a very prolific pigeon, breeding 
from six to nine pairs a year. Fine large birds of this variety 
will give entire satisfaction. They also do well crossed with the 
Hen, Runt or Dragoon. The Dragoon is the next best bird 
and almost equal to the Homer in breeding and feeding qual- 
ities. It is a fine show bird and I think will be a great favorite. 
This is also good crossed on Homers, Hens or Runts. The Runt 
is a very large pigeon, the largest of all breeds in fact, but as a 
squab breeder not a practical bird at all if used pure. They 
are not a prolific bird and poor nurses, but crossed with a Homer 
or Dragoon give size to the squabs and take prolificness and good 
feeding of the young from the smaller bird. Of course in their 
pure state there is a good profit in selling them for breeding, for 
a good Runt will always command $8 to $15 a pair. The Hen 
breeds oftener than the Runt but not as well as the Homer and 
Dragoon. It is a large pigeon and a good feeder of its young. 
They are frequently crossed by squab breeders. The Hen also 
commands a big price. They are also known as the Florentine 
Runts. 

Now for the loft. You know, of course, that's what a 
pigeon's house is called. You have a back fence seven feet 
high. Lay tar paper carefully over a space eight feet wide and 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



167 



the height of the fence. Bring out a partition three or four feet 
on each side of the eight foot space just to make it more private. 
Nail heavy cleats on the partition boards and place a shelf every 
twelve inches. On this shelf place your little nest boxes, a box 
for every pigeon, with one landing board to the two boxes. A 
male bird will try to take up a whole section so make two of the 
nest boxes rather private by having the landing board between 
and he will be content to have only two of them. I do not con- 
sider nappies a necessity, but they certainly do look rather pretty. 
A foot from the top of the fence build a sixteen foot roof of lum- 
ber covered with roofing paper. At the very top stretch a wire 
covering for the entire top, making the pen 30 to 60 feet in length ; 
wire in the sides also, with a gate at the far end. The covered 
roof is always a favorite place with the pigeons for sunning them- 
selves and in the flight a number of perches should be placed. 
This makes a fine pen for twenty-five pairs of breeders. 




Squab Breeding Homer. 



Blue Barred Squab Homer. 



Pigeon grit should always be before them, and hard salt, 
A ver}^ good way to feed salt is to get it in ten -pound bags, pour 
sufficient water over it to wet it thoroughly and put it in the 
oven and bake hard. It will be hard but softer than the salt 
purchased for the purpose at the feed store. Pigeons 
to do their best must have an abundance of pure water, 
both for bathing and drinking. Now as to food. Good sound 
wheat is the staple, I find, with corn, good, dry cracked com, 
a close second. No poor food is cheap. Canada peas are much 
relished by the birds, but as they are fattening should be fed 
sparingly during the breeding season. During the moult, hemp. 



168 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 



peas and vetches are good. Give a bit of green food occasionally. 
Stale bread is also enjoyed by the dainty little creatures and a 
little dessert once in a very great while of a hemp and anise seed 
will make every bird come flying when they see you. Many 
people like the idea of hopper feeding, leaving everything for 
their use constantly before them in hoppers built so the food 
cannot be wasted, while a like number fancy the birds do better 
if fed regularly twice a day. Now your birds have a comfortable 
house, plenty of clean water, grit, shell, salt, nesting material 
and will soon go to housekeeping. 

In this business too much cannot be done to make the breed- 
ing birds comfortable and to keep them in health. Many leave 
their birds go neglected and soon have nothing but lofts of sickly 




Sucessful California Squab Plant. 



and unprofitable birds and finally they have nothing to speak 
of except the lofts themselves. If one goes into squab raising 
there is enough money to be made in that alone. When one 
finds only one squab in a nest, and also another nest with only 
one in, about the same age, place both together in one nest. 
This relieves one pair, which will commence building at once 
and rear another pair. This method gains time, for while each 
pair have but one, they can rear two just as easy, ot>erwise 
there are two pair raising one pair of squabs. No fear need be 
entertained that a pair of birds will not feed another's young; 
they differ in this respect to all the wild birds. 

Extra pains must be paid during the moulting period, which 
begins in the middle of August and lasts a month or more. It 
is during this period that pigeons become sickly and many often 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 169 

die, even with the best of care Thev are weakened by this 
throwing off and growing feathers and need to be treated ac- 
cordingly, i. e., given food to strengthen and stimulate, so as 
to hurry them through their moult and become strong again; 
they are off their feed as a rule and appear lazv Don't imagine, 
as some do, that their birds are all going to die, for if given proper 
attention they will pull through all O. K. Remember this is 
the most trying season on pigeons and the best food should be 
given. A rusty nail in their drinking water is good at this time. 
Do not expect many squabs during the moult, for birds cannot 
moult and breed too. 

For the nest material use some good strong tobacco stems 
with their other nesting material. It is best to cut them about 
six inches in length. The vapor or aroma which arises from 
these stems keeps away lice upon the squabs and also on the old 
ones to a certain extent. We never use lice killer or anything 
else as tobacco stems answers all the purpose. Stems should 
be obtained direct from the cigar factories. Allow the birds 
to use all they wish winter and summer, as they are cheap. 

To prevent lice, besides the stems being used, the pens and 
nests must be cleaned occasionally. As soon as the squabs are 
taken out of the nest, remove the' filthy nest for thev are what 
create mites, worms, etc., and make cleaning miserable work if 
the nests remain too long. 

There is no use in pigeons sitting upon infertile eggs, for 
they lose in time, and add expense for feeding, deriving no bene- 
fit therefrom. After eggs are set upon for five or six days take 
them out of the nest and gently hold them to the light— sun- 
light is best — infertile eggs will be almost transparent, while 
eggs that will hatch have on one side a number of veins all run- 
ning together towards the center, the whole resembling a spider. 
If both eggs do not have this spider appearance in at least seven 
days they will not hatch, and there is no use leaving the birds 
sit on them; destroy them and in a few days new eggs will be 
laid. 

A word here as to the cause of infertile eggs may be of in- 
terest to the reader. First of all it may be the fault of the hen. 
Feeding highly stimulating food oftcns fattens to such an extent 
as to cause infertile eggs. This will often cause soft shelled 
eggs, although in the majority the latter is caused from insuffic- 
ient supply of egg shell material ; lime or oyster shells will remedy 
this. The cocks are most frequently the cause of infertile eggs, 
due to their loss of stamina. A good reliable way to remedy 
this in the cock is to clip off fully one-half his tail feathers. This 
works like a charm, although we have been unable to discern 
its cause. We have had pairs, always having infertile eggs, 
cured by this method. Sometimes pulling out the entire tail 
will answer. This is likewise very good for weak moping pig- 
eons, and it is an excellent thing to do with young birds when 



170 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

they enter their first moult. Many die at this period, and this 
often saves a great number. 

Both the cock and hen pigeon take part in sitting upon the 
eggs; the hen sits from about 4 o'clock in the afternoon till 
about 10 o'clock in the morning; the cock relieving her the rest 
of the time. Two eggs are laid one day apart. Eighteen days 
sitting is required to hatch the eggs. The first egg hatched is 
the cock, and it is from this that the cock as a rule is the larger 
of the two, as he is shown partiality and fed more. When the 
egg is about to hatch, a secretion, known as pigeon milk^ is formed 
in the parent birds' throat, and this is pumped into the squab's 
mouths and fed them until they attain an age of about ten days, 
when grains are fed after being predigested. After they are 
two or three weeks of age the parents feed them upon the grains 
soon after they have eaten them and drank water. The)' take 
the bills of their young into their mouths and by a sort of pump- 
ing motion draw up the food from their own crops and feed it 
to their young. Pigeons also have the power to dislodge any 
foreign substance which becomes lodged in their crops, such as 
oyster shells, etc. 

The squabs to be of marketable size should be about four 
weeks of age, although some parent birds by good attention 
and frequent feeding have their young well filled out and fat- 
tened in less than four weeks time, others again require a longer 
time ; however, when the pin feathers under the wings and upon 
the sides of the body are a quarter to a half inch in length, the 
squab is fit to kill, as it will not improve but rather decline if 
left to get older. Many in starting this bu.siness kill their squabs 
entirely too young, but all live to learn and it does not take long 
in the squab business. The squabs continue growing and fatten- 
ing until they begin to fly, and one day of this exercise reduces 
their weight considerably. It is a good idea to cut one wing of 
the squab to prevent flying, when ripe instead of green market 
squabs are wanted. While experience is the best teacher, 
beginners should profit by others' experience, which can be 
gained by visiting, successful California lofts. 

SELECTION OF STOCK. 

The foundation of most successful squab ranches are pure- 
bred Homers, The pure Homer are the best breeders, and one 
finds a greater percentage of fertile eggs and a smaller percentage 
of delicate or sick youngsters among their offspring, and less 
sickness or tendency to slack up in breeding, among them than 
any other variety. Good Homer squabs should run from 9 to 
T2 pounds per dozen; 1 2 pounds to the dozen is the ideal squab, 
but to obtain this breeders must cull their birds many times. 
It can be done with pure Homers, if only the largest breeders 
are selected each year. Extra large Homers are not easy to get 
at all times, as the hens will run small under the best conditions, 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 171 

and quite often a nice large cock mated to a small hen will breed 
extra large young ones. The hens as a rule are more tight or 
close feathered than the cocks, and are much heavier than they 
really appear to be. It is not safe to cull out the small ones too 
close or one is likely to have a heavy surplus of cocks. 

A thoroughly mated pair of Homers will instinctively begin 
hunting a nest or corner they can call their own, as soon as turned 
loose in a new loft. For this reason it is well to have the loft 
ready for the birds before they are put in it. The nest boxes 
should be all arranged, nest pans in place, feed and water dishes, 
etc. in working order. If mated birds have been purchased 
the best method is to liberate as many pairs as you intend breed- 
ing in a loft, all at the same time. When this is done, each pair 
have the same opportunity to select their nest, and they will 
settle very readily. 

If part are placed in the loft ahead of the others, the first 
Occupants have the advantage over the new arrivals, of being 
acquainted with the place and the result will be considerable 
fighting before all are settled. 

The mated- pairs will all start looking for a nest and one 
by one, settle in what is to be their future headquarters. 

Once a pair settles on a nesting place, mark the nest and 
mark the pair. In this way one can easily keep a record of just 
how many ^^oung one gets from each pair of breeders, the date 
they laid, etc. The birds all settled one does not have long to 
wait for the first eggs. 

As stated, the Spring months are the best for breeding. 
We do not believe in breeding from a pair the year through and 
strongly advise separating the old breeders for a month or two 
during the summer, in order that the hens may rest and get 
readv for another season's work. Onr plan is to start the old 
breeders about February ist, and save all the strong youngsters 
hatched during the months up to July ist. These youngsters 
will all be ready to start breeding by the last of September, and 
can be set at work as fast as they begin to show an inclination 
to pair up. 

These young pairs are the ones to get the winter Squabs 
from. They will breed well all through the winter, and the fol- 
lowing season up to moulting time. We would advise marketing 
all squabs hatched after July ist. These as a rule will not breed 
until late in the winter or the following spring. 

HANDLING OF PIGEONS. 

One of the things a beginner in the breeding of pigeons needs 
to learn is how to handle the birds properly. Nothing will 
show one's experience with pigeons quicker than the manner of 
handling them. A practical fancier holds the bird in such 
a way that he cannot struggle, and in such a wav that its plum- 
age is never ruffled or injured. For the benefit of the novice 
we give a few instructions. 



172 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

When possible to do so, catch the pigeon between the two 
hands; (we have seen breeders so expert at this that they could 
catch a bird on the fly and get him right), or by clasping the 
hands over the back, so as to cover the wings and keep them 
folded. Once caught, no matter how, turn the right hand so 
that the back shall be to the right, thumb uppermost; then place 
the legs of the bird between the first two fingers, close down the 
the palm of the hand, bringing the two fingers close together 
thus securing the legs, then curve the thumb over the wing 
flights and tail so that it touches the end of the first finger ; then 
turn the hand downwards, bringing the remaining fingers up 
towards the body. You then have the pigeon so that he can 
be readily examined, cannot struggle, and no matter how wild, 
he is under perfect control. 

By carefully following these instructions a little practice 
will enable any one who has occasion to handle pigeons to do 
so correctlv, with pleasure to himself and comfort to the bird. 

DISEASES OF PIGEONS. 

The following on diseases of pigeons was written by Dr. 
C. M. Selfridge, Oakland, Cal., and has proven of much value 
to California breeders of pigeons. 

APOPLEXY. 

The symptoms — The bird turns its head down with the top 
resting on the bottom of the cage. Inability to eat; incordina- 
tion of the leg muscles; st?»ggering. 

On post mortem examination you may find a ruptured blood 
vessel, and if of long standing, softening of the substances of the 
brain. 

Causes — Overfeeding of too rich, fattening food, lack of 
sufficient exercise; inbreeding. 

Treatment — Usually the axe. One of our members suc- 
ceeded in curing two cases in the following manner: Epsom 
salts, three two-grain doses, followed b}^ one-grain dose of qui- 
' nine, not to exceed three grains in forty-eight hours. 

BARRENNESS. 

Symptoms — Where the hen keeps her nest for days with- 
out laying. The mate then takes his turn, setting on the empty 
nest. 

Causes — Inbreeding, which weakens the reproductive organs 
in both sexes. Too rapid and frequent laying one season will 
cause a hen to be barren the next season, or she may lay very 
late. 

Treatment — Putting a pair of fertile eggs under the birds 
will frequently cause them to go to breeding. Strychnine given 
in T-400 of a grain twice a day may cure the trouble. 

Feeding boiled meat, slightly salted, has proven a very 
valuable remedy where all others have failed. 



CAUPORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 173 

Darling's Meat Scraps, fed dry, will not only correct this 
trouble, but will increase the frequency of nesting and mature 
the squabs sooner. Should all of these methods fail, you can use 
the birds for nurses, to hatch fertile eggs laid by another pair 
having youngsters that would be too young to care for them- 
selves when said eggs are due to hatch. If you do not care to 
do this, put them in the pot. 

CANKER. 

Symptoms — Resembles diphtheria in the human. You will 
find patches of a white substance on the mucus membrane of 
the mouth and throat. On removal the wound bleeds quite 
profusely, sometimes, so it is not a good plan to remove the 
canker forcibly. 

Causes— Inbreeding; bad food; impure water; cold. 

Treatment — Apply with a brush, equal parts of Hamlin's 
Wizard Oil and sweet oil twice a day. Also, dilute alcohol 20 
per cent, applied with an ox-hair brush. Give Federation Spe- 
cific No. 4. 

CISTIC FORMATION 

Symptoms. — A collection of a cheesy mass at any of the 
orifices of the body, or in places caused by injury. 

Causes. — In some cases it is due to an injury. They are 
found in the egg passages in young hens after the passing of the 
first egg. In this instance, remove it by general pressure, about 
the vent with the thumb and finger, using the round end of a 
hair-pin to lift it from the passage. 

In the treatment of these growths, it is best to remove 
them and dust in a small quantity of Iodoform; sometimes an 
application of 50 per cent carbolic acid and sweet-oil once a day 
will prove efficacious. 

COLD. 

Symptoms. — Sneezing; running of a thin, watery substance 
from the nostrils ; breathing through the mouth ; with a collection 
of jelly in "V" or roof of the mouth. 

Causes. — Change of temperature; lowering of vitality by 
not eating, especially in youngsters. 

Treatment. — The removal of the jelly with an ox-hair 
brush, dipped in Hamlin's Wizard Oil and sweet-oil. Apply 
also to the nostrils. Give Federation Specific No. 5. 

CROP BOUND — SOUR CROP. 

Symptoms. — Bird refuses to eat; food does not pass from 
the crop; bird throws up food, drinks to over-distension; water 
runs out of the mouth as the bird is picked up. 

Causes in Poultry. — Where the chicken eats large pieces 
of meat, or some large substance that will not pass into the giz- 
zard. 

In pigeons, where food does not pass readily. Impure 
water or food may cause it. 



174 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

Non -hatching of the eggs, which causes souring of the milk 
in the crop.. 

Treatment. — Removal of all food from the crop, washing 
out with bicarbonate of soda water; restrict diet; give hemp 
seed; small quantities of water; give Federation Specific No., 3. 

Occasionally Federation Pill No. i. 

DIARRHOEA. 

Symptoms. — Water discharge; rapid emaciation; often 
time with good appetite; frequent thirst. 

Causes. — Cold; musty food; impure water. 

Treatment. — Change of food and water. Give Federation 
Specific No. 2. 

DROOPY WINGS. 

Where the wings drop down and drag on the ground; caused 
by picking the bird up by its wings; lack of muscular develop- 
ment, especially in growing squabs; sometimes -you may find 
lice as a cause. 

Treatment. — Cutting the long flight feathers, which lessens 
the weight of the wing, and the weaker muscles will draw the 
wing up. 

For the lice, dust with any of the lice powders, also grease 
the head. 

FEATHER DISEASE. 

Where the feathers do not come through the skin, but 
spread out underneath. Quills do not drop the capsules. 

Causes. — Lack of proper feather forming material. 

Treatment. — Grease well with vaseline; put lime in the 
water. Federation Pill No. 2. 

GOING LIGHT. 

Bird becomes very much emaciated; refuses to eat or drink; 
dumpy; ruffling up all its feathers. 

Causes. — Repeated laying and not nesting; confinement; 
starvation. 

Treatment. — Plucking the tail, which causes an irritatiori, 
and sets them eating. It is better probably to squeeze the oil 
duct at the root of the tail. The Pigeon Pills No. 6 will often 
prove beneficial. Also Federation Pill No. 2. One grain of 
Epsom salts at night, with one-half grain of quinine in the morn- 
ing, has in some cases proved beneficial. 

Putting the Whitman Tonic in water has saved a great 
many good birds. 
Formula : 

Creosote, 20 drops; 
Ferum Sulph., 2 drachms; 
Magnesia Sulph., 2 ounces. 
Sodium Sulph., 4 ounces. 
The use of dried ingredients in compounding the same will 
avoid the remedy from solidifying. Use teaspoonful in two 



CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 175 

quarts of water, putting the whole in an earthenware dish as 
the iron will rust any metal receptacle. 

INDIGESTION. 

The bird refuses to eat; throws up what it has eaten; sour 
smelling water runs from the crop when the bird is picked up. 

Causes. — Overeating; long continuation on the same diet. 

Treatment. — Change of diet; give hemp seed liberally; put 
hypo-sulphate of soda in drinking water. Tablespoonful of 
saturated solution to one pint of water. Oive Federation Specific 
No. 6, and Federation Pill No. i is often useful when in this 
condition. 

INFERTILITY. 

Where the male bird does not impregnate the eggs. 

Causes. — Inbreeding; lack of proper tone to the system 
and confinement. Infertility of the male is determined by ex- 
amination of the egg on the fifth or sixth day. To examine 
the eggs hold the egg in the thumb and finger up to a lighted 
lamp, or the sunlight. If you find what resembles a spider, a 
dark small spot with blood vessels running from both sides of 
the center, you may be sure the egg is fertile. Should the egg 
prove infertile, throw them away, and the birds will usually lay 
again within ten days. 

It is not always a good plan to do this more than once in 
succession, as it is likely to cause the hen to become barren. 

If, on examining the eggs of the second nest, they prove 
to be infertile, you had better put in one or two fertile eggs that 
were laid on the same date and allow the birds to hatch them. 
This method will frequently bring the birds fertile. Sometimes 
changing the malo to another hen will prove a great advantage 
and result favorably. The same treatment is used in barren- 
ness of the hen. 

JOINT DISEASE OF THE WING. 

Resembles white swelling: joint becomes swelled and in- 
flamed ; wing droops. 

Causes. — Injury while fighting or flying; sometimes from 
no apparent cause. Feeding of too rich food may cause it. 
Inbreeding; also congenital. 

Treatment. — Isolate the bird; pluck the feathers from the 
joint ; apply tincture of iodine every third day. Give Federation 
Specific No. I. 

PARALYSIS. 

Inability of the bird to use its legs; it may be partial, pro- 
gressive and complete. 

Causes. — Inbreeding; feeding of too rich food for an in- 
definite time; it frequently makes its appearance after a cold. 

Partial Paralysis. — ^There may be only one leg paralyzed 
at first and as the disease progresses both legs become involved 
and the bird is perfectly helpless. 



176 CALIFORNIA POULTRY CULTURE. 

When the disease progresses in spite of your remedies, you 
had better destroy the bird to reHeve its misery. 

Besides your remedies, you will have to hand-feed the bird. 

Treatment. — Give Federation Specific No. i for the first 
day, follow with Federation vSpecific No. 2 three times daily. 

PULLING THE T-MLS OF BIRDS. 

This practice seems to be universal with breeders for a great 
many years past — the reasons none could tell only that some- 
one else told him to do it. I firmly believe it sets up an irrita- 
tion, for I have seen birds, after having their tails pulled, rush 
about as soon as released and hunt for food, and devour it greed- 
ily. 

In reading a late number of a pigeon paper, I found 
the following recommended: 

"If the bird is dumpy, examine the oil gland at the base 
at the tail. If yellow and swollen, pull out the tail feathers and 
squeeze out the puss from the gland. This seems a better plan, 
except in Maltese Hen Pigeons, as pulling their tails will cause 
a long growth, which is undesirable. Would recommend close 
cropping." 

ROUP. 

Coughing; sneezing; water discharge from the nostrils; 
swelling about the eyes, with loss of sight and no passages. 

The discharge is often bad smelling, both from the throat 
and nose. 

Ulcers will be found in the throat, appearing like a fungus; 
loss of appetite; rapid emaciation; loss of strength. 

Causes. — Infection; also may follow a bad cold if neglected. 

Treatment. — While a majority of fanciers of both pigeons 
and poultry use a liberal amount of ax, dipping the bead in 
coal oil is recommended by some and has cured in the early 
stage. Give Federation Specific No. 4, where there is a stringy 
glutinous discharge, and Federation Specific No. 6 where there 
is a rattling in the throat, heard as the bird breathes. 

SORE RECTUM. 

The rectum protrudes — a scabby collection of excrement 
and a serious exudation, which, when removed, bleeds quite 
profusely, leaving a raw surface underneath. Ineffectual strain- 
ing to move the bowels — the bird will be seen picking the rectum 
with its bill. 

Causes. — Cold; it also may follow an attack of canker. 

Treatment. — ^Removal of the scab; bathing the parts with 
a weak solution of Hamamelis in water i to 20. Give Federa- 
tion Spec. No. 7. 

SORE EYES. 

Eyes, are swollen watery and red; inflamed. You will fre- 
quently see a cluster of bubbles at one corner of the eye. Loss 
of sight is often noticed; it may be infectious. 



CALltUkXIA FOLLTKY CULTURH. 177 

Causes. — Cold; injury; overfeeding; too crowded quarters. 

Treatment. — t, per cent solution boracic acid dropped in 
the eye twice a day; bathing the eyes in Hamamelis water i to 
20. Federation Spec. No. 1. 

WORMS. 

Where you fail to detect anything the matter with the bird, 
and it still acts badly, rest assured it has worms. 

Treatment. — Give small pieces of garlic the size of a pea" 
repeat next day. Make also a few pellets of cayenne pepper 
soaked in bread. Give this to the bird one every two hours for 
half a day. This will strengthen it and facilitate the expulsion 
of the worms. 

We have not taken up the subject of fancy pigeons in this 
chapter, although many ranches are run to breeding fancy pig- 
eons solely. Plans given will do as well for the fancy stock as 
for the market squab breeder and we refer our readers to a Pig- 
eon Standard for descriptions of all varieties. 



FEB 141907 






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